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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 



UNIVEESITY EDUCATION. 



BY 



HENBY P>TAPPAN, D.D. 



^'1^ ' 




NEW YORK: 
GEORGE P. PUTNAM, 155 BROADWAY. 

M DCCC LI. 






Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1850, by 

HENRY P. TAPPAN, 

in the Clerk's olRce of the District Court of the United States for the Southern 

District of New York. 



S. W, BENEDICT, 
Stereotyper and Printer, 16 Spruce-St. 



ADVERTISEMENT. 



This Treatise includes an article publislied by the Author 
in the Biblical Repository of July, 1850. It was an after- 
thought to give it to the public with modifications and 
additions. 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 



The primitive idea and form of education is that of 
a preparation for the ordinary and necessary occasions 
of human life. The world was given to man as a vast 
store-house of materials, capable of being wrought out 
and adapted to his uses. As originally given in their 
rude condition, they met only his most necessary wants. 
But he had within himself the principle of a higher 
utility, leading to conceptions of convenience, comfort, 
elegance. The development of his nature in this direc- 
tion gave birth to agriculture, the mechanical arts, man- 
ufactures, and commerce — the forms of human indus- 
try. This idea is the basis of what is strictly popular 
education. In its rudest state it presents merely, and 
in different degrees, mental invention, contrivance and 
adaptation, and physical skill — where instinct and spon- 
taneous thought work together, and where the wonder- 
ful instrumentality of nature is perfected by use and 
ripened into habit. Thus we have unpolished men 



6 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

quick in calculation, and nice and skillful in meclianicai 
works. 

But human industry, in order to accomplish its most 
useful works, and to bring the physical conditions of 
the world to the highest perfection, calls in the aid of 
the loftiest sciences, both pure and physical : Mathe- 
matics, Mechanics, Astronomy, Chemistry, and the 
science of Nature, in its widest extent, are all brought 
in to aid and perfect human industry. The few here 
direct and govern the many. The people do not all 
become men of science, but they work by rules of a 
higher order which men of science have provided for 
them, instead of committing themselves to their own in- 
genuity, and to experiments more or less fortunate. 
But the employment of these scientific and determined 
rules quickens thought, excites curiosity, and leads to 
the knowledge of many scientific truths, and to some 
rational comprehension of the system of the universe, 
and of the power and scope of the human faculties. 

Men, too, as members of the social organization, as 
subjects of government, as moral and religious beings, 
must acquire notions of social and civil law, of moral 
and religious duty. The cultivation of a people in this 
direction will depend upon the condition of their social 
state, the nature of the governments under which they 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 7 

are held, and the religious beliefs under which they have 
been nurtured. 

We have in all the above particulars that form of 
education of which all men must more or less partake. 
It is the education of utility and necessary duty. It 
embraces what may be called a popular or practical 
system of education. Institutions which are estab- 
lished to promote this form are popular or practical 
institutions. 

In nations, however, where the fine arts and litera- 
ture are cultivated, the whole people feel the genial in- 
fluences arising from the arts, in public buildings, in 
statuary and painting, and in the diffusion of poetry 
and music. And since, wherever the art of writing 
appears, a knowledge of written language becomes 
itself a matter of the highest utility in the ordinary 
commerce of life, there will be an effort to make this 
knowledge general. But this must bring along with it 
the possibilities and means of some degree of literary 
cultivation. Among the ancients, indeed, with whom 
books were scarce, the people in even the most culti- 
vated states were dependent upon orations delivered in 
public assembhes, upon the recitations of poets, and 
upon dramatic exhibitions in the theatres, and not upon 
reading, for literary cultivation. But the effect of 
these was very great, as we see exemplified in the 



8 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

Athenians. Among the moderns, the immense multi- 
plication of books and periodical publications throws 
the influence of ideal and sesthetical education over 
even the lower orders. Popular education thus un- 
avoidably advances beyond the mere demands of utility 
and necessity in industrial, social, civil, and religious 
life. 

The second form of education relates to the arts of 
the beautiful, or whatever refines and embellishes hu- 
man life through the influence of sesthetical tastes. 
The power of the arts is, indeed, felt by the whole peo- 
ple, but education in the arts properly belongs to a 
class. They are the men who are impelled by natural 
genius, co-operating with circumstances which often 
appear accidental, to devote themselves to an ideal life. 
Schools of art spring up with the spontaneity of the 
artistic life. Solitary endeavors — ^bright stars shining 
alone amid a wide-spread darkness — at first appear. 
Then the first great works form inspiring calls to kin- 
dred geniuses in after times, and stand as models of 
perfection and taste. Thus artists are multiplied., 
Next enthusiastic disciples collect around the great 
masters, and schools of art come into being. 

The third form of education relates to professional 
life. The three great professions of Law, Medicine, 
and Theology, have their origin in the deepest necessi- 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 



ties of man. They are the professions in distinction 
from all others as of paramount importance. 

The first stands connected with ethics and civil juris- 
prudence — with the rights of man, the relations of indi- 
viduals, communities, and nations — with social, civil, 
and moral order. Hence it demands a profound knowl" 
edge of moral science, of history, civil, political, and 
juridical. 

The second is based upon multifarious observation 
and experiment, and involves a knowledge both of the 
physical and mental structure of man, and of the sys- 
tem of nature as containing both the causes and reme- 
dies of diseases. 

The third, as developed in the Christian church, em- 
braces a wide range of knowledge. The classical lan- 
guages of Greece and Rome, together with their Hellen- 
istic, Patristic, and Mediaeval developments ; the He- 
brew and its cognates ; History and Antiquities, sacred 
and profane ; Metaphysics, Natural Theology and 
Ethics ; and, since Christian doctrine has been mixed 
up with almost every form of philosophy, the fullest 
knowledge of philosophical opinion, and the history of 
dogmatic construction and modification, from age to 
age. These three professions collect as remedial pow- 
ers around the cardinal interests of humanity. The 
first wars with wrong and injustice, and ministers to 
1* 



10 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

law, government, and the natural rights of man. The 
second wars with disease and death, and ministers to 
health, to the prolongation of life, and to both physical 
and rational enjoyment. The third wars with error 
and sin, and ministers to the moral perfection and the 
immortal hopes and well-being of man. And they all 
demand high gifts of intellect, and the noblest and 
profoundest accomplishments of learning. It is not 
surprising, therefore, that systems and institutions of 
education for the especial preparation of men for the 
learned professions should have grown up, and become 
paramount to all others ; and that even the cardinal 
idea of a liberal education should have identified itself 
with the idea of such a preparation. 

The fourth form of education is the ideal or philosoph- 
ical. Here the capacities of the mind are considered, 
and the system of education is shaped" simply for edu- 
cating — leading forth — unfolding these capacities. We 
now leave out of view the mere utilities of life, the de- 
mands of particular arts, the preparations for a par- 
ticular profession. We ask, what man is — what he is 
capable of becoming '? We find him endowed with high 
powers of thought, observation and reasoning — with im- 
agination and taste — with conscience and moral deter- 
mination. And in all these he is capable of growing 
indefinitely — of becoming more and more intellectual, 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 11 

more and more beautiful in his imaginative and tasteful 
functions, — more wise and good, without an assignable 
limit. And then we ask, for the laws and means of 
promoting and leading on this growth 1 And we find 
that all knowledge is adapted to this great end, — that 
in knowing and reasoning he comes to know more easily 
and accurately, and to reason more rapidly and surely ; 
that in forming an acquaintance with the great works of 
literature and art, and in producing these works, the 
imagination and taste are continually unfolding and 
ripening ; and that the Hberal professions and any em- 
ployments entering into the life and well-being of so- 
ciety, while in their objective offices they are multiply- 
ing benefits on every side, react subjectively and form 
the discipline by which the soul grows into every form 
of intellectual power and moral worth, and becomes a 
partaker of the Divine nature. 

Philosophical or ideal education does not abstract 
itself from the pursuits and ends of our human life, or 
lose sight of any of the great interests of the social 
state ; on the contrary, it embraces them all, and that, 
too, under the highest points of vieAV. It contemplates 
every man as having some proper work to perform for 
the common weal ; but that, in order to perform it 
well, he requires the cultivation of all his faculties, 
while in the doing of his work, he shall ripen more and 



12 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

more. It has thus two states — the preparatory and the 
executive. 

The preparatory is formal and scholastic, and comes 
under the direction of institutions of learning. Herein 
is comprised that education of the mental faculties in 
general, of which we have spoken above. Man is a 
creature of reason, and t|ierefore, his capacity of rea- 
soning should be developed through all the forms and 
processes of logic in the prosecution of such studies as 
are judged best calculated to this end. He is a crea- 
ture of language, and therefore should be taught the 
full power and beauty, and the ready and apt use of 
language in speech and writing by the study of the most 
cultivated languages, as presented in their classical 
works, whether of poetry, oratory, history, or philoso- 
phy, and by original efforts. He is a creature of im- 
agination and beautiful tastes, and therefore ^ould 
these be drawn forth in studies of the arts, and by po- 
etry and music. He is a creature of passions and will, 
and therefore should be instructed in morality, and be 
disciplined to self-government. He is immortal, and 
therefore should he learn that system of religion which 
brings life and immortality to light. 

Under the philosophical, or ideal point of view, Edu- 
cation is the cultivation, the improvement of man, in 
respect to the capacities wherewith he is constituted ; 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 13 

it is the nurture and development of his soul. Nor do 
we here forget his physical being, and neglect a training 
in all those manly exercises which give noble propor- 
tions, and hale vigor and strength. The ideal of a man 
is a true and cultivated soul dwelling in a sound and 
active body, prepared for all proper duties. 

After a right worthy discipline of the man, by this 
preparatory course, we next proceed to the executive 
part of his education. Under this denomination wc 
embrace professional studies, such as Law, Medicine, 
and Theology, or the studies relating to any course of 
life for which the individual may design himself. So 
much of these studies as are necessary to fit him for 
undertaking professional duty may also be pursued at 
literary institutions. But they require ever to be fol- 
lowed up and extended through life — as a workman 
would be ever handling his tools. 

The education which wc thus indicate by the philo- 
sophical or ideal is the most thorough, liberal, and ex- 
tensive, and designed to make sound, disciplined, and 
amply-furnished men for the state and the church, and 
for all the arts, duties, and oflSces of life. 

This conception of education is not that of merely 
teaching men a trade, an art, or a profession ; but that 
of quickening and informing souls with truths and 
knowledges, and giving them the power of using all 



14 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

their faculties aright in whatever direction they choose 
to exert them. It seems, indeed, to belong only to the 
few who enjoy prolonged leisure for study, and a full 
supply of means and appliances to carry out this con- 
ception fully ; but it contains a principle of universal 
application ; for in even the lower grades of education, 
the triie idea of education as the development of the 
soul in all its faculties, may be held up to view and 
acted upon. The reasoning powers will not be pro- 
foundly cultivated by the elementary branches of a 
common school, nevertheless they will be somewhat cul- 
tivated, and a taste may be acquired through them of 
the great end of study. Besides, let this higher notion 
of Education be adopted, and the human soul be treated 
not as a thing for secular uses, but as the lofty, lordly, 
and immortal subject for whose improvement and good 
all secular things are to be used, and then will the concep- 
tion of its own value be infused, and it will aspire after 
its true cultivation, and those who direct popular edu- 
cation will aim to adapt studies to this end, unfolding it 
even under a limited education on those high and intel- 
lectual grounds, which its innate powers and best ap- 
propriation alike demand. 

The conditions of human life may forever limit a 
thorough education to the few, but we see not why a 
valid principle of education should not govern every 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 15 

form and degree of it. With respect to those who de- 
sign themselves for the learned professions, and for 
high and influential positions in the State, there can be 
no question that they require all the discipline of their 
best powers which they can possibly attain to, as well 
as that particular discipline and knowledge which re- 
lates to their peculiar calling. The first rears up men 
to their full stature : and the commanding places of 
society demand men of full stature. 

Since some men are strongly determined by pecu- 
liarity of genius and taste to particular pursuits, and 
since the constitution of the world makes so loud a 
call for a division of labor, there will always be many 
who will press into professional studies without a 
thorough antecedent philosophical culture. Nor will 
we deny that eminent men in particular branches of 
science, and skillful men in art, and men of ability and 
efiiciency in professional life, will thus be made. We 
will grant also that Educational Institutions ought to 
make provision for such cases. 

But on the other hand, we ought to aim to make ap- 
parent the difference between a mere professional and 
technical education, and that large and generous culture 
which brings out the whole man, and which commits 
him to active life with the capacity of estimating from 
the highest points of view all the knowledges and agen- 



16 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

cies which enter into the well-being and progress of 
society. That is not really the most practical educa- 
tion which leads men soonest and most directly to prac- 
tice, hut that which fits them best for practice. It is 
not the mere use of implements of art which makes an 
artist, but the proper and artistic use of them. There 
are men who paint sign-boards all their days. In learn- 
ing a trade, in gaining an art, in acquiring an education, 
there is some definite end in view, or there ought to be ; 
time, means, and painstaking can be estimated only by 
this end. No one may arbitrarily say, there shall be so 
much time spent, so much labor performed, and then 
we shall have the trade, the art, the education ; nay, 
but we must do all that is necessary to compass the 
end. 

Now those Institutions of Education which are de- 
signed to stand pre-eminent, while they may give suit- 
able scope to peculiar geniuses, and to those who set 
out to be eminently practical according to their own 
notions of a direct and ready method, must be so ordered 
as to lead, in the general, to a solid and thorough meth- 
od. There never will be extraordinary wits enough to 
make a general law : and those who are bent upon the 
so-called practical method may do good service by their 
failures. But it is required of a great Institution of 
I earning to make and vindicate a rule of education which 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. lY 

takes its rise in the very constitution of man, and wliich 
calmly and majestically walking over the plausible but 
fleeting expedients of a day, meets with a sound heart 
and a strong hand the permanent exigencies of mankind. 
Men, ever prone to measure themselves and to meas- 
ure each other, will also measure the character of in- 
stitutions of learning by mere success. Now there is a 
great deal of success which is sheer good fortune, and 
much also that comes from keen-sighted but ignoble 
policy. Its emptiness is demonstrated by the fact that 
it sooner or later disappears and leaves no permanent 
good behind. Multitudes have no higher ambition than 
to gain a present success at whatever expense, — an ele- 
ment of human nature which has been set forth in that 
legend of a thousand forms — a blood-written compact 
with the Devil, by which the future is sold for the pres- 
ent. There are many who are so eager to grasp the 
bargain that they allow themselves to be cheated even 
in the present conditions of it, by becoming so intox- 
icated with ambitious projects at the first taste of pros- 
perity, that they run against great principles which God 
has established in spite of the Devil, and thus are over- 
turned in mid career. So frequently does this happen 
that a sage maxim has sprung up, that " honesty is the 
best policy." But this maxim, although it serves to 
restrain some, and to comfort others, is nevertheless left 



18 ■ UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

■behind like a guide-board by the mad racers after suc- 
cess. 

An Institution of learning may do a successful busi- 
ness in the way of multiplying empirics in Medicine, 
Law, and Theology ; in furnishing men with just knowl- 
edge enough to make them political demagogues, or keen 
operators in all sorts of enterprises in this enterprising 
age. But there comes up before us in strong contrast 
with this, the idea of an Institution furnished with 
an ample and well-selected library, with a complete 
scientific apparatus, with well-filled cabinets, — with 
all the material of learning — an Institution with an en- 
lightened and devoted corporation, with eminent profes- 
sors, " many-sided " men, who, while intent upon their 
particular departments, are smit with the love of all 
knowledges and spiritual accomplishments, and so co- 
work together for the great purpose of building up 
human souls after a true and noble ideal, and preparing 
thoroughly-disciplined men to go forth into the world as 
ministers of truth and virtue, to adorn every profession, 
to labor in every sphere of duty, to sustain the state as 
majestic pillars, to carry forward every science with an 
earnest devotion, to add great works to a nation's liter- 
ature, and to pour through every channel of society 
streams of influence to refresh, beautify and invigorate. 
Such an Institution will stand upon its own merits, and 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 19 

justify itself by its works. Its sublime position elevates 
it above the noisy region of mere success. It will do 
more for mankind if it should send forth only a few men 
of the right kind, than one that should pour forth a 
rabble multitude of sciolists. 

In reviewing the history of literary Institutions, there 
are two facts which at once arrest our attention. The 
first is, that the highest schools of learning were chron- 
ologically first. Schools for the people were not the 
elements out of which Universities took their growth ; 
on the contrary, Schools for the people grew out of the 
Universities. The second fact is, that Universities were 
not created originally by the State, but were the work 
of individuals. Solitary scholars commenced courses of 
public lectures which attracted pupils. Here was the 
beginning of the Universities. Afterward Colleges were 
endowed by benevolent patrons- The State gave its 
influence and authority only after eminence had been 
attained. " William of Champeaux opened a School 
of Logic at Paris, in 1109 ; and the University can 
only deduce the regular succession of its teachers from 
that time."* " The University created patrons, and 
was not created by them. And this may be said also 
of Oxford and Cambridge m their incorporate character, 

* Hallam. 



20 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

whatever the former may have owed, if in fact it owed 
anything, to the prophetic munificence of Alfred."* 

" Colleges with endowments for poor scholars were 
founded at the beginning of the thirteenth century, or 
even before, at Paris and Boulogne, as they were after- 
ward at Oxford and Cambridge, by munificent patrons 
of letters. It ought, however, to be remembered, that 
these foundations were not the cause, but the efiect of 
that increasing thirst for knowledge, or semblance of 
knowledge, which had anticipated the encouragement of 
the great. In the twelfth century, the impetuosity with 
which men rushed to that source of what they deemed 
wisdom, the great University of Paris, did not depend 
upon academical privileges, or eleemosynary stipends, 
which came afterward, though these were undoubtedly 
very effectual in keeping it up."t It must be remem- 
bered, too, that this very enthusiasm for learning was 
created by the lecturers. So powerful was the fascina- 
tion which Abelard exercised over his disciples, that the 
rude walls of the Paraclete in the solitude were no less 
thronged than the Schools of Paris. 

In these two facts we have comprised the history of 
Educational development. Some solitary man gives 
himself to thought as the great end and interest of his 
being. He compasses the learning of his age, he ad- 

* Hallam. f Ibid. 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 21 

vanccs beyond it, he attains a deep consciousness of 
intellectual growth and power. The truths of which he 
feels himself possessed, the new system of philosophy 
or science which he believes he has unfolded, stir within 
him like an inspiration, and he is impelled to give fresh 
expositions of old truths, to correct current errors, and 
to proclaim his new doctrines. Other minds of similar 
tendencies, quickened into intellectual life by the fas- 
cination and power of his teaching, gather around him. 
He becomes the Doctor of a School. In some town or 
metropolis, or in some sacred retreat, he establishes 
himself. The number of his disciples increases, his 
fame spreads more and more, and he becomes a con- 
spicuous object in the public eye. At length the noble 
and wealthy, ecclesiastics and princes, patronize the 
rising Institution, charters and privileges are granted, 
endowments are made, and it attains a permanent foun- 
dation. 

Those who were disciples, now themselves become 
Doctors or Masters, and instead of the solitary man, 
there arise many lecturers in different departments of 
learning, and as rivals in the same departments. 

In other places similar institutions arise, sometimes 
beginning with an exclusive devotion to a philosophy, or 
to the civil and canon law, or to a scholastic theology, 



22 U.N1VERS1TY EDUCATION. 

and from thence in time branching out into all kinds 
of known learning. 

The University now becomes the seat and fountain of 
knowledge. Here scholars resort. Here learned men^ 
are bred and take up their residence. Here from age 
to age the sciences are carried forward to greater ripe- 
ness. From hence go forth men to fill every profession, 
to hold great offices in the State, and to lead on the ad- 
vancement of civilization and refinement. 

The growth of a popular system of education out of 
the higher institutions is very evident. In the first 
place, it is plain that an unenlightened population will 
not themselves take measures for their own education. 
The very fact of a general ignorance, and a consequent 
want of taste and inclination for learning, precludes 
this. There must be certain enlightened individuals 
who are capable of appreciating and undertaking the 
great movement. The beginning of popular education 
must therefore, of necessity, lie in a higher region. 

Now the communication of Universities with the 
masses of the people is twofold. First, they draw in- 
dividuals from the bosom of the people within their 
cloisters, there to be nurtured as scholars. Secondly, 
they send forth among the people educated men in the 
difierent commanding offices of life. Every educated 
man among the people becomes the centre of a genial 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 23 

kindling influence, manifesting the power and diffusing 
the charm of intellectual cultivation. The stream of 
educated men constantly flowing out, leads to a con- 
stant influx of youths to be educated. Thus by two 
currents is the highest intelligence keeping up a com- 
munication with the lowest, multiplying the number of 
the learned, and narrowing the boundaries of ignorance, 
and making a sure and constant approximation to gen- 
eral education. 

There were, indeed, formidable impediments in the 
way of the early consummation of this great and benefi- 
cent object. Among these may be mentioned the slow 
progress of the Universities themselves during in- 
auspicious ages of superstition, tyranny, violence, and 
war; the extreme degradation of the people under 
the feudal system ; and the appropriation of the Uni- 
versities to the learned professions, and particularly 
to the education of the clergy. In some countries the 
Universities have never been emancipated from priestly 
dominion, and the influence of antiquated dogmas. 
Thus until lately the study of philosophy was prohib- 
ited in the Universities of Spain. Of course, where the 
Universities became the mere instruments of upholding 
systems opposed to human freedom and the general 
illumination of mankind, we can find no connection be- 
tween them and popular education. But then let it be 



24 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

recollected that in these countries there is no popular 
education ; while, on the other hand, it is just in those 
countries where the Universities have received the most 
extensive and thorough development, that schools for 
the people have been most multiplied and carried to the 
greatest perfection. 

The history of our educational development must 
take for its starting-point the ancient schools of Greek 
philosophy. These schools were created by individuals 
who freely thought and freely taught. Disciples col- 
lected around them, received the light, and struck out 
new paths, and arrived at new truths for themselves. 
These schools existed without the patronage of the 
State. And it was a strange atrocity when the State, 
as in the case of Socrates, arrested the freedom of 
thought by persecution and death. Indeed, the schools 
rather patronized the State, for they gave that impulse 
to thought and disseminated those vital truths which, 
be they ever so abstract in the formal exposition, do, 
nevertheless, contain the springs of national greatness, 
for they make those great men the philosophers, "the 
historians, the statesmen, the poets, the orators, the 
heroes who alone make a nation great. 

The Grecian life was a life of thought, art, and hero- 
ism — and they co-worked together. ^Eschylus and So- 
phocles were soldiers. Alcibiades was a disciple of Socra- 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 25 

tes. Socrates was a sculptor, a soldier, a philosopher. 
Pericles was the orator and the hero. Pythagoras, the 
philosopher, the mathematician, the astronomer, by his 
political wisdom supplanted with his associates the an- 
cient senate of Croton, and gave political constitutions to 
surrounding cities. 

In these Schools of Philosophy, from Thales to Aris- 
totle, was comprehended the metaphysics, the natural 
theology, the mathematics and astronomy, the logic, the 
physics, and the political wisdom of the ancient Greeks. 
They gave a manly discipline, they enlarged the bound- 
aries of thought, they gave out truths which can never 
die. From these schools we have at least the imperish- 
able philosophy of Plato, the imperishable geometry of 
Euclid, and the imperishable logic of Aristotle. We 
have also a form and method of education which has 
ever since been perpetuated, and lives to-day in our 
Universities. 

The Romans only reproduced the philosophy of Greece. 
The school of Alexandria, the new school at Athens 
under the Romans, the Neo-Platonic — all the schools 
that came afterward had their prime fountains of thought, 
their methods and power, from the ancient schools. 
Oriental elements Avere indeed introduced, but the Gre- 
cian mind predominated. The schools of Law, of Med- 
icine, and of Theology — all arose under the same con- 



26 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

trolling doctrines and modes of thought. Galen even 
attempted to apply the demonstrative method of geome- 
try to the science of medicine. ^ Christianity came into 
conflict with the Schools of Philosophy, but she did not 
silence them. On the contrary, there was an interfusion 
of Platonism with Christian doctrine, and the logic of 
Aristotle moulded the forms of dogmatic theology. 

The authority of the Church, however, prevailed. 
What she had received from the philosophical schools 
she baptized and called her own. The invasion of the 
Barbarians annihilated everything but the Church, and 
what the Church had taken into her repositories, or 
under her protection. The- schools of learning estab- 
lished by the Emperors were converted into ecclesiastical 
societies, and all science and literature were merged 
into theology. The beginning of the eighth century 
showed the universal triumph of ecclesiastical power. 

The theological education of Europe, from the fifth 
century to the beginning of the twelfth, was the mere 
study of the Fathers, and of commentaries upon them. 
Every doctrine was received upon authority. There 
was no free action of the human mind. 

At the close of the eleventh century, Roscelin, the 
founder of the Schoolmen, appeared. Next followed 
William of Champeaux, the founder of the University 
of Paris. Now came the long reign of Scholasticism. 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 2*7 

With tlie rise of Scholasticism is identified the rise, or 
the commencement of the modern development of Eu- 
ropean Universities. Scholasticism was really a struggle 
of the human mind for freedom and enlargement of 
thought against the authorities of the Church and the 
State. There could not be an open rebellion, there was 
not even the idea or the wish of an open rebellion. But 
the human mind, confined within the awful circle of ec- 
clesiastical prescription, aimed, by Scholasticism, to 
make the most of its material, to find the best discipline 
of its faculties, and the widest range of thought. This 
was attempted by starting upon the received doctrines 
of theology, metaphysical questions, and deducing from 
them logical consequences. The Schoolmen were indeed 
nothing less than rationalists, who endeavored to present 
religious dogmas under the forms of the reason. 

The great error of the Schoolmen lay in receiving both 
their religious dogmas and their philosophical systems 
upon authority. They studied neither the Scriptures, 
nor philosophy, independently. They relied upon the 
Fathers for their theology ; and upon Plato and Aris- 
totle for their philosophy. Their intellectual acumen 
appeared in attempting to reconcile the former with the 
latter. But it must be admitted in their justification 
that this error was forced upon them. The Church 
would not permit them to transcend authority by inde- 



28 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

pendent research. It was an age of authority. The 
Platonic and Peripatetic pliilosOphies were curiously in- 
termingled. The former had early influenced theological 
dogmatism, while yet the latter was excluded. The 
heretics were the first to introduce Aristotle. They 
made a skillful and powerful use of his dialectics-. The 
Orthodox were therefore compelled to furnish themselves 
from the same armory. Thus in time Aristotle became 
the great authority, and the influence of Platonism ap- 
parently declined.. Nevertheless, the Platonism already 
incorporated could not be discarded, but it was retained, 
and that, too, to a great extent, ignorantly, as the teach- 
ing of the Fathers. Aristotle was therefore the ac- 
knowledged authority of the Schoolmen, while in bringing 
him into union with the Fathers they were fusing the 
Platonic and Peripatetic systems together.' 

This will explain the celebrated controversy of the 
Realists and Nominalists. They were both wrong and 
both right. The former occupied the Platonic side of 
the question, and the latter the Aristotelian. Plato's 
ideas are realities — and must be acknowledged as such 
by every one who receives his philosophy — they are the 
seminal potencies of all knowledge in the human reason, 
and therefore as real as the reason itself. Aristotle's 
genera and species are but the names of classifications 
which may be natural, but are often arbitrary. They 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 29 

express only the common qualities which we take into 
view in conveniently arranging the particulars of the 
objective world. The Platonist, occupied with general 
terms as expressing ideas, the Aristotelian, occupied 
with the same as expressing a mere classification, are 
at issue only while they misunderstand each other's 
ground. It is plain that, contending under this mis- 
understanding, they could never arrive at a common de- 
cision. Hence the power of the Church and the State 
was called in to settle by decree, what no logical skill 
could terminate by the syllogism. 

It was the prodigious interest created by these dis- 
cussions, in an age when no other intellectual activity 
was possible, that drew together thousands of disciples 
around profound, acute, and eloquent lecturers. It was 
these discussions that brought the University of Paris 
into being, and gave new life to the old Universities, 
such as Oxford and Cambridge. 

To estimate properly University education under the 
Schoolmen, we must conceive of theology as the grand 
subject of study, and the logic of Aristotle as the grand 
organon. There were, indeed, seven departments of 
study — seven being determined upon because the num- 
ber seven was mystical and sacred. The first three, 
called the Trivium^ were Grammar, Logic, and Rheto- 
ric. These were elementary. The remaining four, 



30 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

called the Quadriviunij or the Mathesisy were Arith- 
metic, Geometry, Music, and Astrology. The last com- 
prised both astronomy proper and the art of divination 
by the stars. These were studies of the highest order. 
But all alike were pursued in subserviency to Theology, 
and all were wrought into a vast speculative system de- 
termined by the forms of the syllogism. - 

Universities were thus an outgrowth of the Church, 
and destined for the service of the Church. They " seem 
usually to have grown out of cathedral or abbey schools, 
taught by the Chancellor* oi the Church ; but his office 
became gradually external to it, and the teaching was 
carried on by persons who received his license ; certain 
of whom were retained within the school itself, while by 
degrees, as these licenses became customary at the end 
of a certain course of study, a sort of external body grew 
up around the original school, yet within its precincts 
and under its protection. We have here the germs of 
many things. The licenses are the future degrees. The 
esoteric teachers foreshadow' the University professors ; 
and the exoteric lead us gradually to the lecturersin 
right of their degree, presiding over inns, halls, or hos- 

■* The Chancellor, Cayicellarius^ so named from the lattice- 
work behind which he sat, or from cancelling or crossing out 
writing, under the Roman Emperors, was a notary and scribe. 
In the cathedrals he originally was probably nothing more. In 
the Bishops' Court he is the Bishops' lawyer, versed in canon law. 



UN[VERSITY EDUCATION. 31 

tels — and thereby mediately or immediately to the tu- 
torial system."* 

The Colleges are not a part of the University proper. 
When students flocked to the lectures of the Uni:versity 
professors, it was necessary to make provision for their 
lodging and board. For this pui'pose, inns, halls, and 
colleges were established. The inns and halls were 
temporary, and finally gave way to colleges. These 
were endowed by benevolent individuals,, and became 
permanent institutions. They were at first designed 
primarily for aliment and habitation ; afterward, they 
were cloisters " for studious men to retire to, to devote 
themselves in leisure and freedom from the cares of 
daily subsistence, to meditation and the studies of the 
arts and sciences in general ; always, however, as the 
handmaids of the architectonic science of theology, to 
which they were bound both professionally and acade- 
mically."! The University, " original and essential, is 
founded, controlled, and privileged by public authority 
for the advantage of the State." The Colleges, "ac- 
cessory and contingent, are created, regulated, and en- 
dowed by private munificence, for the interest of certain 
favored individuals."! 

* Quarterly Review, June, 1840. 

t Ibid. 

1 Edinburgh Review, June, 1831. 



32 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

" In the original Constitution of Oxford, as in that 
of all the older Universities of the Parisian model, the 
business of instruction 'vvas not confided to a special 
body of privileged professors. The University was 
governed, the University was taught, by the graduates 
at large. Professor, Master, Doctor, were originally 
synonymous. Every graduate had an equal right of 
teaching publicly, for a certain period, the subjects 
competent to his faculty, and to the rank of his degree ; 
nay, every graduate incurred the obligation of teaching 
publicly, for a certain period, the subjects of his faculty, 
for such was the condition involved in the grant of the 
degree itself. The bachelor, or imperfect graduate, 
partly as an exercise toward the higher honor, and use- 
ful to himself, partly as a performance due for the de- 
gree obtained, and of advantage to others, was bound to 
read under a master or doctor in his faculty a course of 
lectures ; and the master, doctor, or perfect graduate, 
was, in like manner, after his promotion, obliged imme- 
diately to commence iincipere), and to continue for a 
certain period publicly to teach (revere) some, at least, 
of the subjects pertaining to his faculty. As, however j, 
it was only necessary for the University to enforce this 
obligation of public teaching, compulsory on all gradu- 
ates during the term of their necessary regency, if there 
did not come forward a competent number of voluntary 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 33 

regents to execute his function ; and as the schools 
belonging to the several faculties, and in which alone 
all public and ordinarj^ instruction could be delivered, 
"were frequently inadequate to accommodate the multi- 
tude of the inceptors ; it came to pass that in these 
Universities the original period of necessary regency 
was once and again abbreviated, and even a dis- 
pensation from actual teaching during its continuance 
allowed. At the same time, as the University accom- 
plished the end of its existence only through its regents, 
they alone were allowed to enjoy full privileges in its 
legislation and government."* 

In time, salaried graduates or regents became perma- 
nent teachers ; and these were peculiarly the j)rofessors. 
As the colleges multiplied, they rose in importance. 
They were placed under the care of masters, and finally 
lectures were delivered in the particular colleges in dis- 
tinction from the University lectures. 

The instruction given in the Colleges was at first a 
matter both of convenience and utility, and afibrded in- 
dividual students an opportunity of pursuing particular 
branches, whether from choice, or to make up deficien- 
cies in those brancl^s. With the exception of Ger- 
many, however, the Colleges finally obtained a prepon- 

* Edinburgh Review, June, 1831. 



34 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

derance over the University proper. On the Continent 
the Colleges did not beconae independent of the Univer- 
sities. On the contrary, the regents of the Colleges 
were appointed from the University schools, and were 
always under the control of the faculties from which 
they were taken. " They formed, in fact, so many 
petty universities, in so many fragments of a universi- 
ty." Or rather, the University distributed itself into 
the Colleges. In England it was quite otherwise. 
Originally the government of the University had been 
exclusively committed to the masters and doctors in 
congregation and convocation ; and the heads of colleges 
and college fellows shared in the academical govern- 
ment only as they were full graduates. Under the 
Chancellorship of Laud, the heads of the Colleges were 
clothed with supreme authority. In the Continental 
Universities, the University governed the Colleges ; 
now, in Oxford, the Colleges governed the University. 
Hence it followed that the fellows of the Colleges be- 
came the tutors in their several houses by the consent 
of the heads of these houses. The professors of the 
Universities and the tutors of the Colleges now became 
rivals, and as the heads threw their influence on the 
side of the latter, the former declined. We cannot 
here enter upon the particulars of the process by which 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 35 

this great revolution was produced. But such was the 
fact. 

The influence of this change sceems to have been dis- 
astrous, and served to introduce into the English Uni- 
versities an incompetent teaching. The Continental 
Colleges became petty Universities by receiving compe- 
tent professors from the University itself. The Eng- 
lish Colleges became petty elementary schools by ex- 
changing learned professors for fellows, who were often 
made tutors by chance or by favor. 

Leaving now the forms under which the University 
system was developed, let us return to the subjects of 
study. The reign of pure Scholasticism gradually 
yielded to branches more liberal — the ancient classics, 
mathematics, and physical science. The study of the 
ancient classics received a powerful impulse through the 
Italian schools, which produced many scholars of great 
eminence. The transition to the ancient classics was 
natural, from the common use of the Latin tongue. 
There was an aflBnity also between the logic of Aris- 
totle and geometry. The study of the Peripatetic phi- 
losophy introduced the j>hysics of Aristotle. The appli- 
cation of the Scholastic method to physical investigation 
made this branch of science indeed of little worth, and 
laid it justly open to the scornful denunciation of Ba- 
con. Nevertheless there was progress, and the human 



36 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

mind was working up from the subtleties of the Scholas- 
tic philosophy to a region of greater freedom and light. 
The Universities were the centres of intellectual ac- 
tivity, where great men from time to time appeared, 
leading on the march of thought until the philosophy of 
Bacon changed the method of investigation, and Kepler 
and Newton revealed the true system of Nature. 

It might have been expected, that with the advance 
of science, the Universities would have thrown off all 
the old scholasticism, and sprung forward in a new and 
glorious career. This, however, does not appear to 
have been the case so generally as the new era seemed 
to promise. 

The changes in the French Universities were the 
effect of the convulsions of the Revolution, and the^ 
energy and patronage of Napoleon, rather than the re- 
sult of a natural progress. The modern school of- sci- 
ence and philosophy at Paris has been eminent ; and 
the lectures of such men as Royer Collard, Cousin, 
Guizot, Jouffroy, Biot, and Arago, well nigh realize the 
ideal of a University. ~ 

In the English Universities the old tutorial and col- 
legial system has continued to prevail. Oxford has 
been charged with the almost entire neglect of the ma- 
thematics, and Cambridge with a corresponding neglect 
of the classics. The Edinburgh Review of April, 1810, 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 37 

remarks : " We believe ourselves warranted to say, 
that the examinations at Oxford, till within a very few 
years, so far as they were scientific at all, and not con- 
fined to the learned languages, turned entirely on the 
Aristotelian and Scholastic logic. The college lectures, 
according to the best of our information, were guilty of 
this same neglect ; they gave no account of the great 
modern discoveries, or of the method that had led to 
them. Some few individuals might pursue natural 
philosophy to a certain length ; but it entered not at 
all into tlie general plan of education. To judge, so 
far as we have been able to learn, from the subjects of 
public examination, or from the general course of study, 
one would have thought that the fame of the great dis- 
coveries which had been made during the last hundred 
and fifty years, had never reached the University of 
Oxford." 

Improvements have since been introduced, and greater 
improvements are in progress, particularly in the Uni- 
versity of Cambridge ; but it appears an indisputable 
fact, that the system of the English Universities has been 
lamentably deficient, and has by no means yet attained'^ 
completeness demanded alike by their long standing, and 
the character of the age to which they have come down. 
The Edinburgh Review of April, 1849, asks: "But, 
even as a preparatory training, is the actual benefit ever 



38 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

found to justify their high pretensions 1 Is there any 
man alive who can say, not with truth, but even with 
conviction, that the best or most laborious scholars and 
mathematicians of the University are the best lawyers, 
physicians, philosophers, or statesmen of England 1 
The very reverse is the plain, if not the acknowledged 
fact. It would be difficult to find at present, among 
the most eminent leaders in Westminster Hall, any 
whose academical course was distinguished by studies, 
or crowned with honors, either mathematical or classi- 
cal. The extent to which academical distinctions have 
lately been thrown into the background in the profes- 
sional and public life of England, has gone lengths 
which really surprise us." 

As a general system, the English Universities pre- 
sent us only courses of Collegial study of a very limited 
extent, pursued under tutors, and followed by examina- 
tions for a degree. The attainment of the degree ap- 
pears to be the great end of study. Neither a principle 
of utility, nor of philosophical education, governs. 
There are indeed higher honors, the reward of higher 
studies. And unquestionably profound and elegant 
scholars are made on the foundations of the fellowships. 
We are speaking of the tendency of the system, and 
not of the opportunities afforded in these venerable seats 
of learning, to those who are disposed to study jand 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 39 

learned retirement. But the men who should be per- 
manent professors, like Whately and Arnold, can find 
at the Universities no amply-endowed professorships, or 
thronging classes yielding adequate fees ; and hence are 
compelled, with few exceptions, to take the head master- 
ships of schools, or to retire into the church ; and leave 
the instruction to the fellows of the colleges. The 
truth is, that the English Universities still feel the in- 
cubus of the old Scholasticism, and reap the effects of 
the changes introduced under the Chancellorship of 
Laud. They are antiquated institutions, which do not 
meet the requirements of a new age. 

As the Universities grew out of the Church, are in 
their origin Church institutions, their condition will be 
found to keep pace with that of the Church. Hence, in 
Spain, where the Schoolmen were longest cherished, and 
where the power of the Priesthood extended over every- 
thing, the Universities, instead of advancing with en- 
lightened Europe, have remained fixed in scholastic 
and ecclesiastical solidity. In Italy they have retro- 
graded. 

On the other hand, in Protestant Germany, what an 
advance has been made ! In no part of the world has 
University education been so enlarged, and made so 
liberal and thorough. The Universities of Protestant 
Germany stand forth as model institutions, if there be 



40 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

siicli to be found ; and the whole system of education, 
from the Common School upward, exhibits an intellec- 
tual progress which commands our admiration. In Ger- 
many, the emancipation of the Church was the emanci- 
pation of the Universities. The rationalism which now 
prevails, whatever may be its errors, is a symptom and 
a consequent of the intense reaction which there took 
place against the prescriptions of ecclesiastical and aca- 
demical authority ; and which must ultimately correct 
itself by the same force by which it came into being. 
The Universities of Scotland have exhibited a similar 
freedom and independence, without running into a sim- 
ilar excess. With a high tone of general scholarship, 
they have had also a distinct . philosophical school of 
distinguished merit ; and no country has contended more 
nobly and steadfastly for civil and religious freedom. 

Now the English Universities exhibit the same cor- 
respondence to the church out of which they have sprung, 
and to which they belong. Two strong elements in the 
English Church have ever been, a zeal for the preroga- 
tive, and a stiff adherence to the apostolical succession. 
Many of us Protestants who have no great regard for 
either, think that the forced reformation of the English 
Church by Henry VIIL, and the modifications which 
he gave it, never separated it sufficiently from Rome. 
it indeed received a new head, but retained many of the 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 41 

old errors. The Uuivcrsities have in like manner been 
the strongholds of Toryism and high-churchism. The 
part which Oxford in particular has acted in our own 
times by her publications of a Romish tendency, and by 
the defection of some of her members, shows the direc- 
tion and strength of her ecclesiastical bias. Oxford is 
governed by church influences, and these hold her in 
scholastic bondage, and bind her under a reverence for 
the past, instead of leading her onward with the awaken- 
ing spirit of philosophy, and the enlargement of the 
sciences. 

Neither Oxford nor Cambridge have ever had a school 
of philosophy. In this they have been left behind by 
France, Germany, and Scotland. England has had 
philosophers, but they gave no lectures, and formed no 
schools at the Universities. What had Bacon, Locke, 
and Coleridge to do with the Universities ? What had 
the Universities to do with them 1 Ecclesiastical pre- 
scription can never allew a free philosophical movement. 
We can understand at tliis point of view the fact affirmed 
by the writer in the Edinburgh Review, that the exam- 
inations at Oxford, " so far as they were scientific at 
all, and not confi,ned to the learned languages, turned 
entirely on the Aristotelian and Scholastic logic ; and 
that the new logic, such as is explained in the Novum 
Organum of Bacon, was never mentioned." Professor 



42 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

Whewell, of Cambridge, the learned author of the Phi- 
losophy of the Inductive Sciences, and of the History of 
the Inductive Sciences, has done much to awaken a phi- 
losophical spirit in that University, and has contributed 
essentially to the bringing about of manifest improve- 
ments in the course of education. His work On Lib- 
eral Education in general, is one of great value and 
interest. The distinction which he makes between 
permanent and progressive studies, is important and 
suggestive ; the view which he takes of the discipline of 
the human faculties is philosophical and lofty ; the pro- 
portions in which he distributes classical and mathe- 
matical studies, strike us as judicious ; and his recom- 
mendation of the geometrical method in preference to 
the analytical as a discipline for the reasoning faculty, 
is wise and worthy of all attention. 

That the English Universities are improvable, and 
improving, we fully believe. But never, while paralyzed 
by high-church influence, can they fully develop their 
great capacities, and collect within their precincts, and 
under their government, schools of philosophy and science 
formed of the great wits and profound thinkers of Eng- 
land. It is easy to get up scholasticism under prescrip- 
tion, but investigation and productive thought must be 
free as birds upon the wing — they must bear them- 
selves along by their own native vigor, in their own 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 43 

native element. And we must run the risk of flying in 
the wrong direction sometimes, or we can have no flying 
at all, unless it be the wretched flying of a decoy-pigeon 
— fluttering within the limits of the string held by the 
hand of its master. Universities may, indeed, make 
learned men ; but their best commendation is giveiL- 
when it can be said of them, that furnishing the mate- 
rial and appliances of learning, setting the examples in 
their professors and graduates, breathing the spirit of 
scholarship in all that pertains to them, they inspire 
men, by the self-creative force of study and thought, to 
make themselves both learned and wise, and thus ready 
to put their hand to every great and good work, whether 
of science, of religion, or of the state. 

We have spoken of the German Universities as model 
institutions. Their excellence consists in two things : 
first, they are purely Universities, without any admix- 
ture of collegial tuition. Secondly, they are complete 
as Universities, providing libraries and all other mate- 
rial of learning, and having professors of eminence to 
lecture on theology, law, and medicine, the philosophi- 
cal, mathematical, natural, philological, and political 
Sciences, on history and geography, on the history and 
principles of Art, in fine, upon every branch of human 
knowledge. The professors are so numerous that a 
proper division of labor takes place, and every subject 



44 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

is tliorouglily discussed. At the University every stu- 
dent selects tlie courses lie is to attend. He is thrown 
upon his own responsibility and diligence. He is left 
free to pursue his studies ; but, if he wishes to become 
a clergyman, a physician, a lawyer, a statesman, a pro- 
fessor, or a teacher in any superior school, he must go 
through the most rigid examinations, both oral and 
written. 

Collegial tuition in the German Universities does not 
exist, because wholly unnecessary, the student being 
fully prepared at the Gymnasium before he is' permitted 
to enter the University. Without the Gymnasium, the 
University would be little worth. The course at the 
Gymnasium embraces a very thorough study of the 
Latin and Greek languages, a knowledge of the mathe- 
matics below the DijBFerential and Integral Calculus, 
general history, and one or two modern languages be- 
sides the German, and Hebrew if the student design to 
study theology. The examinations are full and severe, 
the gradations of merit are accurately marked, and no 
one- below the second grade is permitted to enter the 
University. 

The Gymnasia thus guard the entrance of the Univer- 
sities. Besides, the University course would not be 
available to him who had not prepared himself for it. 
It presumes certain attainments, and passes by the 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 45 

elements of the sciences. It is true, indeed, that a 
student may neglect his opportunities in the University, 
but then he throws away all hopes of professional life, 
and of employment in the State. 

The Educational System of Germany, and particu- 
larly in Prussia, is certainly a very noble one. We 
cannot well be extravagant in its praise. Thorough 
in all its parts, consistent with itself, and vigorously 
sustained, it furnishes every department of life with 
educated men, and keeps up at the Universities them- 
selves, in every branch of knowledge, a supply of erudite 
and elegant scholars and authors, for the benefit and 
glory of their country, and the good of mankind. 

In comparing the University system of Germany with 
that of England, it is worthy of remark that Germany 
has also admirable common-school systems for popular 
education, while England is strikingly deficient in this 
respect. In the one case a properly-developed Univer- 
sity system has reached its natural result of invigorating 
general education ; in the other the priestly privilege of 
a cloistered learning is still maintained. 

The Colleges of America are plainly copied from the 
Colleges of the English Universities. The course of 
studies, the President and Tutors, the number of years 
occupied by the course, are all copied from the English 
model. We have seen that in the English Institutions, 



46 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

the name of University alone remained, while the col- 
legial or tutorial system absorbed all the educational 
functions. In America, while Colleges were professedly 
established, they soon assumed a mixed character. 
Professors were appointed, but they discharged only the 
duty of tutors in the higher grades of study ; so that 
the tutors were really assistant professors, or the pro- 
fessors only tutors of the first rank. Our Colleges 
also have from the beginning conferred degrees in all 
the faculties, which in England belongs only to the 
University. By establishing the faculties of Theology, 
Law, and Medicine, some of our colleges have ap- 
proached still more nearly to the forms and functions of 
a University. By assuming_ the title of University and 
College indifferently, as we are prone to do, we seem to 
intimate that we have some characteristics belonging to 
both, and that we deem it in our power to become Uni- 
versities whenever we please. Sometimes the only 
advance made to the higher position, is by establishing 
a medical school ; which, however, has little other con- 
nection with the college than its dependence upon it for 
conferring the degree of Doctor of Medicine. 

If we understand aright the distinction between a 
College and a University, the latter is not necessarily 
constituted by collecting together schools under the dif- 
ferent faculties. These may be merely collegia! schools. 



UNIVERSITV EDUCATION. 47 

A University course presumes a preparatory tutorial 
course, by -wliicli the students have acquired elementary 
knowledge, and formed habits of study and investiga- 
tion, to an extent sufficient to enable them to hear the 
lectures of professors "with advantage, to consult libra- 
ries with facility and profit, and to carry on for them- 
selves researches in the different departments of lit- 
erature and science. A University course may be 
indefinitely extended at the pleasure of the student. 
He may here undertake the fullest philosophical educa- 
tion possible — passing from one branch of study to an- 
other, and selecting courses of lectures according to the 
state of his knowledge, and the intellectual discipline 
which he requires; or, having accomplished a satisfac- 
tory general education of his powers, he may next, 
either enter upon professional studies, or devote him- 
self to some particular branch of science as the occupa- 
tion of his life. In the German Universities any one, 
whether he designs to give himself wholly to a student's 
life, or to fit himself for a professor's chair, may, after 
undergoing the requisite examination, obtain from the 
faculty to which he belongs, permission to teach, with- 
out receiving any compensation, and only as a form of 
education. The professors extraordinary are selected 
from these licentiates, and receive a small salary. 
From these again the professors of the different facul- 



48 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

ties are usually selected. Every person of these three 
classes may lecture upon any subject he pleases : but 
professors are obliged, besides, to lecture on the branches 
particularly contemplated in their appointment. In 
this way at a University alone can the intellectual life 
be varied and enlarged. A University is literally a 
Gyclopcedia where are collected books on every subject 
of human knowledge, cabinets and apparatus of every 
description that can aid learned investigation and philo- 
sophical experiment, and amply qualified professors and 
teachers to assist the student in his studies, by rules 
and directions gathered from long experience, and by 
lectures which treat of every subject with the 'freshness 
of thought not yet taking its final repose in authorship, 
and which often present discoveries and views in ad- 
vance of what has yet been given to the world. In fine, 
a University is designed to give to him who would 
study every help that he needs or desires. 

A College in distinction from a University is an ele- 
mentary and a preparatory school. A College may be 
directly connected with the University, or it may not. 
Its original connection with the University was partly 
accidental, and partly necessary. It was necessary to 
provide convenient habitations for students who flocked 
to hear the lectures of the doctor or professor. Many 
of these students might require private tuition, in rela- 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 49 

tion both to preparatory and additional studies, and 
thus the Colleges would become places of separate 
study, under masters appointed for that purpose. This 
must especially have been demanded in the early period 
of the Universities, when preparatory schools were not 
common. 

In Germany the Gymnasia are really the Colleges. 
The education which they furnish is more thorough, we 
believe, than what is obtained at the Colleges of either 
England or of our own country. In England, schools 
like that of Rugby, under the late Dr. Arnold, and 
those of Eton and Westminster ; and in America, 
those schools commonly called Academies^ and indeed 
other classical schools, are of the nature of a college, only 
of a still lower grade, and more elementary. In pass- 
ing from the classical school to the college the studies 
are. not essentially changed, nor is the kind of disci- 
pline. Hence, a student in our country can prepare at 
the academy for the second, third, and even fourth 
year of coUegial study. In college there may be less 
of juvenile discipline, and there are generally greater 
advantages. What gives the college, however, its chief 
distinction, is the power of conferring academical de- 
grees. We may say, therefore, the academy prepares 
for the college, and the college prepares for a degree. 
In England the colleges are directly connected with the 
3! 



50 'JNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

University. But, it appears the University has fallen 
into desuetude, and colleges alone remain. 

In our country we have no Universities. Whatever 
may be the names by which we choose to call our insti- 
tutions of learning, still they are not Universities. 
They have neither the libraries and material of learn- 
ing, generally, nor the number of professors and courses 
of lectures, nor the large and free organization which 
go to make up Universities. Nor does the connection 
of Divinity, Law, and Medical Schools with them give 
them this character. For law and medicine a thorough 
preparatory classical discipline is not required. In 
this respect the last is the most deficient of the two, 
and great numbers receive the academical degree of 
Doctor of Medicine who have never received an aca- 
demical education. The degree of Doctor of Laws is 
more sparingly bestowed than any other ; and this, as 
well as Doctor of Divinity, is never bestowed intro-, 
ductory to the entrance upon professional life. The 
schools of Theology approach more nearly to the Uni- 
versity character than any other, since a collegial disci- 
pline is generally required preparatory to an entrance 
therein. 

The course of study in our colleges, cop3dng from 
the English, was, at their first institution, fixed at 
four years. The number of studies then was far 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 51 

more limited than at present, and the scholarship was 
consequently more thorough and exact. There was 
less attempted, but what was attempted was more per- 
fectly mastered, and hence aflforded a better intellectual 
discipline. With the vast extension of science, it came 
to pass that the course of study was vastly enlarged. 
Instead of erecting Universities, we have only pressed 
into our four years' course a greater number of studies. 
The effect has been disastrous. We have destroyed 
the charm of study by hurry and unnatural pressure, 
and we have rendered our scholarship vague and super- 
ficial. We have not fed thought by natural supplies 
of knowledge. We have not disciplined mind by guid- 
ing it to a calm and profound activity ; but, we have 
stimulated acquisition to preternatural exertions, and 
have learned, as it were, from an encyclopaedia the 
mere names of sciences, without gaining the sciences 
themselves. 

" There are, in the whole four years, one hundred 
and sixty weeks of study. Suppose that the student 
pursues twenty of these branches of learning, this will 
allow eight weeks to each. Seven-eighths of the first 
year, and one-half of the second, are devoted to Latin, 
Greek, and Mathematics. If we subtract this amount, 
fifty-five weeks from one hundred and sixty, it leaves 
one hundred and five weeks to be devoted to the re- 



62 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

mainder. This will give us six weeks and a fraction 
to each of the other studies. But this is not all. In 
order to introduce so many sciences into the period 
of four years, the student is frequently obliged to 
carry on five or six at the same time ; some occupying 
him three times, others twice, and others once in a 
week. In this manner, all continuity of thought is in- 
terrupted, and literary enthusiasm rendered almost im- 
possible. Such has, to a greater or less degree, been 
the course pursued by all our colleges. The greater 
the number of studies prescribed in the curriculum, the 
more generous is believed to be the education imparted. 
When a college is not able to exhibit so extensive a 
course of instruction, it is considered as a misfortune 
which nothing can palliate, but its pecuniary inability 
to relieve it."* 

At the same time that we have been enlarging this 
course of study, there has been a tendency to lessen the 
amount of preparation for admission into college, con- 
sidered proportionally to the course to be pursued. We 
undertake to do more, with a worse preparation for 
doing it. But this is what might have been expected. 
A superficial system of study in the college will neces- 
sarily beget in the community a habit of superficial pre- 
paration. The highest institutions will set the tone of 

* Report of Brown University, p. 15. 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 53 

education. And this we see realized in schools of every 
grade and for both sexes. Our schools for boys, our 
schools for girls, present on the prospectus a formidable 
curriculum of studies, and immature beings of sixteen 
or seventeen are carried through the mathematics, the 
natural sciences, general history, the philosophy of his- 
tory, belles-lettres, and metaphysics, together with two 
or three languages and various polite accomplishments. 
These higher branches, too, are often taught in lectures 
adapted rather to Universities than to elementary schools. 
The popular conception of education is not the orderly 
and gradual growth of mind according to its own innate 
laws fixed by God himself, but an immense and vora- 
cious deglutition of knowledges where the mental diges- 
tion is estimated according to the rapidity with which 
the subjects are disposed of. The more masters, the 
more books, the more branches of knowledge in a given 
time, the faster the process goes on. We educate as 
we make money, as we dig for gold, as we build ships 
and houses, as we make railroads and canals. Even in 
these the rapidity of our execution is not the sure sign 
of excellence and stability ; but if it were, we forget 
that although we can quicken the labor of our hands, 
and increase the power and scope of our machinery, we 
may not overlay the organific power of nature ; and that 
as trees must have their time to grow, and harvests 



54 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

their time to ripen, so the mind of man must grow from 
infancy to childhood, from childhood to youth, and from 
youth to manhood, and that as each period has its pe- 
culiar strength and capacities, so each requires its o\Yn 
nurture ; that many things may be accomplished at one 
stage of growth which are impossible at another ; nay, 
that as the mind hath an immortal growth, there are 
some things that will be reserved for the discipline of 
eternity itself. 

We have increased the number of our colleges to one 
hundred and twenty, that is, about four for every State. 
We have enlarged greatly the number of college studies. 
We have cheapened education — we have reduced it to 
cost — we have put it below cost — we have even given it 
away. The public has given money so liberally, and 
made education so nearly gratuitous, that, taking Har- 
vard College as an illustration, every graduate costs the 
public nearly one thousand dollars. And, yet, it would 
appear from the Report of the Corporation of Brown 
University, we have lowered rather than elevated the 
character of our scholarship. " All of them (the col- . 
leges) teach Greek and Latin, but where are our clas- 
sical scholars '? All teach mathematics, but where are 
our mathematicians 1 We might ask the same ques- 
tions concerning the other sciences taught among us. 
There has existed for the last twenty years a great de- 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

mand for civil engineers. Has this demand been sup- 
plied from our colleges ? We presume the single acad- 
emy of West Point, graduating annually a smaller 
number than any of our colleges, has done more toward 
the construction of railroads than all our one hundred 
and twenty colleges united." — p. 18. 

" The effect of this system on the mind of the teacher 
is equally obvious. He must teach, generally, from text- 
books composed by others. His mind can act but im- 
perfectly on the mind of the pupil. The time of the reci- 
tation is commonly quite occupied in ascertaining whether 
the pupil has learned his daily task. He cannot mark 
out such a course as he would wish to teach, but must 
teach as much as he can in the fragment of time allot- 
ted to him. The books which he teaches soon become 
familiar to him. He has no motive to increase his 
knowledge, derived from the business to which he has 
consecrated his life. He already knows more than he 
has opportunity to communicate. There is no stimulus 
to call forth exertion. There is no opportunity for 
progress. The result is easily foreseen. Sometimes 
an instructor becomes interested in other pursuits, and 
his real business takes the place of only a secondary 
occupation. This is fatal to professional success. In 
other cases he becomes reconciled to, and finally in love 
with, his monotonous course ; or, lastly, he throws 



56 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

up his calling altogether, and enters another line of 
life." — p. 19. From the same Report it appears, 
also, that notwithstanding the efforts made to enlarge 
the course of study and to cheapen education, the num- 
ber of educated men has fallen off instead of increasing. 
The calculation is based upon statistics of the New 
England Colleges for the last twenty years. 

It is argued, again, that so far from the intellectual 
character of the professions being elevated by the same 
causes, there is reason to believe that " the rank and 
file of every profession contains a smaller proportion of 
remarkable talent than in the last generation. The 
inducements to enter the professions seem to address 
themselves less successfully to young men of ability and 
enterprise. The other departments of life are continu- 
ally alluring men from high places in Law, or even in 
Divinity. The productive professions are commonly 
filled with men who have not enjoyed the advantages of 
a collegiate education ; nay, for whose benefit no schools 
whatever have been established, and yet, in influence, 
ability, and general intelligence, their position in rela- 
tion to the professions is far in advance of that which 
they held some thirty years since." — p. 31. " The 
most coveted positions in society, seats in our highest 
legislative chambers, and even foreign embassies, await 
the successful merchant or manufacturer, no less than 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 5*7 

him who has devoted his Hfe to what is called a learned 
profession. And yet more ; the number of those who 
consider a collegiate education indispensable to a pro- 
fession, has, for some time, been rapidly decreasing. 
Men have come to doubt whether the course which we 
pursue is that best adapted to prepare men for the 
duties of even professional life." — p. 21. The infer- 
ence is, that men of distinguished talent avoid the col- 
leges, and adopt some other mode of education. 

The Report also shows, that notwithstanding the 
colleges have had in their organization an especial eye 
to the education of ministers of the gospel, and have 
been aided by Education Societies, the number of 
young men entering the sacred profession has by no 
means kept pace with the increase of our population. 
One fact is sufficient on this point. Six New England 
Theological Seminaries have together only eight more 
students now than they had twenty years ago. — p. 33. 

But the condition of our colleges is represented to be 
such as to require relief not only to render the course 
of instruction more attractive and better calculated to 
meet the wants of the community, but also in many in- 
stances to save them from bankruptcy. The deficiency 
in the number of students, taken in connection with the 
low rates of tuition, renders their income inadequate to 
meet the current expenses, notwithstanding the endow- 
3* 



68 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

ments which they have received. This is shown to be 
the case of Brown- University. — pp. 47, 48. 

It is argued that if they be better adapted to the 
condition of our country, they will draw together a 
larger number of students ; and that to make them 
better institutions, will be to increase their resources, 
—p. 50. 

The particulars in which they are defective are, — 
First, The superficial education afforded by pressing 
too many studies within the four college years. Sec- 
ondly, The requiring of studies which are calculated 
only for the learned professions, and particularly the 
ancient languages. Thirdly, The omission of those 
branches which are especially adapted to the mercan- 
tile, the manufacturing, and the agricultural classes. 

The Report proposes to remove these defects by re- 
organizing the colleges on the following principles : 

First, That the fixed term of four years be abolished, 
and that instead thereof courses of study be established 
in the different branches of learning, the time to be de- 
voted to each course to be determined solely by the 
nature of the course itself. Secondly, That each stu- 
dent be allowed, within limits determined by statute, 
to select his studies for himself, and the number of 
courses he is to pursue at the same time, unless, in 
respect to these, the parent or guardian should place- 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 59 

him under the direction of the Faculty. Every course, 
when entered upon, is to be completed -without inter- 
ruption ; but any other course may afterward be added 
thereto, if the student so desire. Thirdly, Any stu- 
dent may take a degree upon sustaining an examina- 
tion in such studies as may be ordained by the Corpor- 
ation ; but no student shall be required to take a de- 
gree. Every student shall be entitled to a certificate 
of the proficiency he may have made in every course 
that he has pursued. 

The number of courses proposed is fifteen. These 
embrace the ancient languages, modern languages, pure 
mathematics, natural science generally, the science of 
law, the English language and rhetoric, moral and in- 
tellectual philosophy and political economy, history, the 
science of teaching, the principles of agriculture, and 
the application of chemistry and of science generally to 
the arts. 

If the proposed changes should serve to increase the 
number of students, and thus both to sustain the col- 
leges and to multiply the number of educated men, they 
would accomplish necessary and important ends. If 
they should farther break up the projects of distinct 
agricultural and mechanic schools, and collect the whole 
educational apparatus and all the candidates for educa- 
tion of the higher kind and degree in our colleges, they 



60 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

would effect an important concentration. Still more, if 
they should elevate the standard of education and give 
hirth to more solid scholarship, they would claim our 
highest consideration. 

An increase in the number of collegiate students, a 
concentration of the educational apparatus and of can- 
didates for education at the colleges, might, however, 
be only a temporary success. New tastes and projects 
might arise and diminish again the number of students, 
and give rise to more popular institutions. But a 
change that should permanently elevate the standard of 
education, and give birth to solid scholarship, would be 
a benefit to be calculated by some other standard than 
the success expressed by the number of students. A 
few men of great and cultivated powers may do more 
for a nation than hosts of mere expert empirics, who 
without learning succeed in gaining a reputation for 
learning, and without principle, dare to invade the 
most sacred offices of society. The changes in Brown 
University may, through the effect of mere noveltj^, 
produce a rush of students to that institution at the 
beginning of the experiment. This, therefore, will not 
be accepted as a test of their value. But, on the other 
hand, when temporary popularity shall have passed 
away, should only the few great and commanding minds 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 61 

come forth and continue to come forth under these new 
auspices, then their character will be settled. 

The question in education, as in religion, is not what 
men desire, but what they need. This must govern us 
in determining the form and quality of our educational 
institutions. Now when it is asked. What we need in 
the way of education 1 We may reply, either, that we 
need to fit men well for professional life, and for the 
general business of the world in the mechanical arts, in 
agriculture, and commerce ; or, that we need to culti- 
vate the human mind according to the philosophical or 
ideal conception ; or, we might reply, that we need all 
in due order and proportion. The last reply would, 
unquestionably, be the correct one. We do need all in 
due order and proportion. Mere professional institu- 
tions will not meet our wants, for we do not all mean to 
be professional men. Mere agricultural, mechanical, 
and commercial schools will not meet our wants, for we 
do not all mean to act m these departments of life. 
Nor would we have the last without the former, for we 
generally mean to apply our education in the practical 
affairs of life. 

It is a more serious and difficult question when we 
come to inquire after the due order and proportion. 
We believe that the due order and proportion exists ^ 
only when the philosophical or ideal conception of edu- 



62 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

cation is made the architectonic conception, when the 
higher institutions represent it, and when, as an all- 
pervading light and warmth, it reaches to every grade 
of education. Human souls are to be educated because 
they are human souls : they are to be disciplined — to 
think, to reason, to exercise all the faculties wherewith 
they are endowed ; they are to gain character and 
worth, to be fitted for duty, as human souls. This 
should be the leading thought of all education — of edu- 
cation in every degree, and for every purpose of life. 
When the lower ground is taken — that of making pre- 
paration for a particular art or profession, we shall fail 
of developing the full strength of the mind and of com- 
municating the highest principles of action : when the 
higher ground is taken, we aim directly at the accom- 
plishment of both. Nor do we in this way remove from 
education its practical character, since the development 
of the mind cannot be effected without setting before it 
its duties in general, and the particular offices in which 
society claims the services of human beings, and espe- 
cially of educated men. We now, as before, enter 
upon the learned professions, or select some useful art 
or business, but we do it as men who know and who 
have cultivated their best capacities. However limited 
the discipline may be, it may still be conducted on right 
principles. 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 63 

As to the defects in the system of education in our 
country, we have ah-eady given our assent to the Report 
of Brown University, in respect to the first ; we believe 
that education has become superficial by attempting too 
much in the short period allotted. The other defects 
do not strike us so forcibly. A review of the college 
studies does not show an especial adaptation to the 
learned professions, unless it be in the space given to 
Latin and Greek. Indeed, the Report admits that it is 
not well adapted to the learned professions, and that 
good classical scholars under the received system are 
as rare as good mathematicians and civil engineers. 
Some of our colleges, too, have introduced a scientific 
course in distinction from a classical, to afibrd an oppor- 
tunity to prepare for the other forms of life besides the 
learned professions. We think, too, that the idea of ac- 
complishing a general discipline of the mind preparatory 
to any sphere of active duty, has not been absent from 
our collegiate systems. We confess, however, that this 
idea has not been well carried out and made effective. 
We have been aiming to do great things ; we have 
called our colleges universities ; we have tried to en- 
large our course of studies more and more ; we seem to 
have been struggling to afford every imaginable facility ; 
and yet we have only a superficial and inadequate edu- 
cation. 



64 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

Must we not seek for our great error somewhere 
else ? We inspire no general desire for high edu- 
cation, and fail to collect students, because we prom- 
ise and do not perform. Hence we fall into disrepute, 
and young men of ability contrive to prepare themselves 
for active life without our aid. In connection with this, 
the commercial spirit of our country, and the many 
avenues to wealth which are opened before enterprise, 
create a distaste for study deeply inimical to education. 
The manufacturer, the merchant, the gold-digger, will 
not pause in their career to gain intellectual accom- 
plishments. While gaining knowledge, they are losing 
the opportunities to gain money. The political condi- 
tion of our country, too, is such, that a high education 
and a high order of talent do not generally form the 
sure guarantees of success. The tact of the demagogue 
triumphs over the accomplishments of the scholar and 
the man of genius. 

Put these causes together, and the phenomena we 
witness and lament are explained. Our colleges are 
complacently neglected when they neither afford the 
satisfaction and distinction of a thorough and lofty edu- 
cation, and yield no advantages in gaining wealth and 
political eminence. 

We have multiplied colleges so as to place them at 
everyone's door; we have multiplied the branches of 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 66 

study so as to give every one enough to do, and to satisfy 
the ambition of learning, if all are to be acquired ; "we 
have cheapened education so as to place it within the 
reach of every one ; we have retained the short term of 
four years, so that no great portion of life need be 
spent in study ; and we have made the terms of admis- 
sion quite easy enough. Now all this would tend to the 
popularity of these institutions, if the education acquired 
helped us to gain money and political influence. But 
as it does not, it is not valued by a commercial people, 
and a people of political institutions like ours. 

And even if our educational systems should be made 
more thorough, requiring more time, we see not that it 
would make a strong appeal to the commercial spirit 
and to political ambition, while men continue to succeed 
so well without high education. The idea of fitting our 
colleges to the temper of the multitude does not, there- 
fore, promise great results. They do not answer to the 
commercial and political spirit of our country ; nor to 
the philosophical or ideal — the architectonic conception 
of education. To attempt to make them answer to the 
former would be of doubtful success. But we can make 
them answer to the latter ; and doing this, we shall 
meet every want of the human mind, and of society ; 
for if we educate men as men, we prepare them for all 
the responsibilities and duties of men. And educating 



66 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

men on this principle, we should in due time have great 
examples of the true form ; and the charm, and power, 
and dignity of learning would become apparent to all. 
And then education would stand out, as in truth it is, 
not as a mere preparation for the facile doing of the 
business of the world, but as the highest aim of the 
human being 3 as Milton has nobly said, " The end of 
learning is to repair the ruins of our first parents, by 
regaining to know God aright, and out of that knowledge 
to love him, to imitate him, to be like him, as we may 
the nearest by possessing our souls of true virtue, which 
being united to the heavenly grace of faith, makes up 
the highest perfection." In this way we should raise up 
a powerful counter influence against the excessive com- 
mercial spirit, and against the chicanery and selfishness 
of demagogueism which now prevail. Men thus worth- 
ily built up would get into all the relations of society, 
and throw a new aspect over the arts, commerce, and 
politics, and a high-minded patriotism and philanthropy 
would everywhere appear. Then it would be seen how 
much more mighty and plastic are great ideas and fun- 
damental principles than all the arts, tact, and accom- 
plishments of expediency. Then the host of penny-a- 
liners, stump orators, discoursers upon socialism, bigots, 
and partisans would give way before sound writers, true 
poets, lofty and truthful orators, and profound philoso- 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 6*7 

phers, theologians, and statesmen. We should have a 
pure national literature, and a proud national character. 

To bring about this great change, we must do some- 
thing besides multiplying colleges after the same model, 
pouring forth a tide of school-books, and making experi- 
ments upon a facile system of education full of preten- 
sion and fair promises, but containing no philosophical 
and manly discipline. 

The multiplication of colleges after the same model 
only serves to increase our difficulties. We set about 
putting up the same kind of buildings ; we create the 
same number of professors, to teach the same things on 
the same principle ; we get together a few books and 
some philosophical apparatus ; and then we have the 
same annual commencements, with orations and poems, 
and the conferring of degrees ; and we get under the 
same pressure of debt, and make the same appeals to 
the public to help us out of it ; and then with our cheap 
education, to induce many to get educated, we expe- 
rience the same anxiety to gather in as many students 
as possible ; and, since where we cannot get money it is 
something to get appearance, we show the same readi- 
ness to educate for nothing those who will submit to be 
educated, but who cannot pay. In all this we are im- 
proving nothing; but we are taking away all dignity 



68 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

from our system of education, and proving its inade- 
quacy. 

Ifc were well to commence about this time some ex- 
periment of a different kind — a new experiment, and 
yet one of no doubtful issue, if we can carry it out to 
its issue. If we can give it a beginning and a middle, 
we know what its end must be. The establishment of 
Universities in our country will reform, and alone can 
reform our educational system. By the Universities we 
mean such as we have before described — Cyclopcedias 
of education : where, in libraries, cabinets, apparatus, 
and professors, provision is made for studying every 
branch of knowledge in full, for carrying forward all 
scientific investigation ; where study may be extended 
without limit, where the mind may be cultivated ac- 
cording to its wants, and where, in the lofty enthusiasm 
of growing knowledge and ripening scholarship, the 
bauble of an academical diploma is forgotten. When 
we have such institutions, those who would be scholars 
will have some place to resort to ; and those who have 
already the gifts of scholarship will have some place 
where to exercise them. With such institutions in full 
operation, the public wiU begin to comprehend what 
scholarship means, and discern the difference between 
sciolists and men of learning. Then we shall hear no 
more inane discussions about the expediency of dis- 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 69 

carding Latin and Greek ; for, classical scholars there 
will then be, who will have an opportunity of showing 
the value of the immortal languages, and the immortal 
writings of the most cultivated nations of antiquity. 
Then we shall have mathematicians prepared for as- 
tronomers and engineers. Then we shall have philoso- 
phers who can discourse without text-books. Then, 
too, we shall have no more acute distinctions drawn 
between scholastic and practical education ; for, it will 
be seen that all true education is practical, and that 
practice without education is little worth ; and then 
there will be dignity, grace, and a resistless charm 
about scholarship and the scholar. 

The philosophic idea of education being thus devel- 
oped in the highest form of an educational institution — 
where alone it can be adequately developed — it will 
begin to exert its power over all subordinate institu- 
tions. There will now be demanded a preparation 
suitable for undertaking the higher degrees of scholar- 
ship, and schools and colleges will receive a new im- 
pulse and will be determined to their proper form. We 
shall not now attempt to learn a little of everything in 
the lower institutions ; but we shall learn that which is 
requisite to prepare for the higher, and we shall learn 
that well. The influence of the higher will be to give 
limitation, order, consistency, and thoroughness to the 



70 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

lower. And there will be diffused through all schools 
of every grade, and for both sexes, new ideas of intel- 
lectual discipline, and the sense of an elevated life and 
duty. Education now will have an authority to define 
it, examples to illustrate it, and the voice of a Divine 
spirit to call it forth. 

We might have had Universities ere this, had we not 
wasted our means and energies in unfruitful schemes 
and misappropriations. We have wasted large sums 
in erecting expensive buildings in many different places 
for small collections of students, which, had they been 
concentrated, would have given for several uncertain 
colleges a stable University, with ample provision of 
books and the whole material of learning, and with 
endowed professorships. 

Some of the States, like the State of New York, have 
made large appropriations from a literature fund to 
common schools, where, scattered in feeble streams 
through a thousand channels, it has produced no other 
effect than cheapening a little more what was cheap 
enough already. Massachusetts, with no literature fund, 
has a common and free school system no less, if not 
more complete and efficient, than New York. Common 
schools required no such attenuated patronage. But 
this fund, on an obvious principle of political economy, 
might have been concentrated into a power that would 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 71 

have given to the State of New York Colleges or Gym- 
nasia, and Universities on an organized and connected 
system that would have justified her claim to be the 
Empire State, in a high and noble sense; and have 
made her, in her educational development, second to no 
country in the world. 

The proposed changes in Brown University set forth 
in the Report of the Corporation, and which we under- 
stand have since been adopted, indicate that it is not 
preposterous to hope that some of our colleges may be 
brought under a higher organization. This Institution 
has hitherto been only a college, but it has been one of 
the best in our country in respect to its endowments, its 
library, and its faculty. It has also been one of the 
most respectable in point of the number of its students : 
nevertheless, it finds a change necessary, and it dares 
to make it. 

There are some features of this new organization, 
which have very much the air of a University. The 
number of courses of instruction, the freedom of choice 
allowed to the student, and the abolition of the fixed 
term of four years, and the graduation of the time 
allotted to each particular course by the nature of the 
course itself — all these seem to point to a University. 
But the Corporation do not, after all, propose to do 
away the collegial character of their Institution, but 



72 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

only to modify it. Their leading conceptions are, first, 
the introduction of a better scholarship, by giving to 
each study more time, or not attempting to do more 
than can be well done ; secondly, to adapt the Institu- 
tion to the wants of all classes ; thirdly, by this wider 
adaptation to call in a larger number of students. 

The experiment alone can determine whether the 
modifications introduced will realize these conceptions 
of an improved and more widely-difiused education. 
We believe that an attempt to modify our collegiate 
institutions emanating from so respectable a source, 
cannot but have weight in determining other institutions 
to consider the necessity of introducing reforms into 
our educational system. We. sincerely desire that the 
experiment may prove successful. And since the Cor- 
poration, in making the present changes, reserve the 
power qf making still further changes, if called for, we 
shall entertain the hope that, in carrying forward this 
experiment, they may be led to form the purpose of 
making Brown University a University proper. As yet 
we do not discern the legitimate idea of a University. 

The very conception of adapting the Institution to 
the wants of " young men who are devoting themselves 
to the productive professions," intimates that pupils 
will be received who have made very little scholastic 
preparation, and that, therefore, the courses intended 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 73 

for the " productive professions " will be quite element- 
ary. The courses here proposed will undoubtedly be 
very useful to young men engaged in commerce and' 
manufactures, and who propose to cultivate farms on 
scientific principles. The increase of students antici- 
pated is likely to be chiefly from this class of youth ; 
and thus, instead of the old college with its Greek and 
Latin, and Mathematics, shall we not have a large com- 
mercial institution, which, instead of gathering around 
itself classical associations, and impressing us with the 
worth and dignity of scholarship, shall only give us the 
hum of preparation for the business of Ufe in the indus- 
trial and productive direction ? The Latin and Greek 
scholars — the old-fashioned plodding students seeking 
after science and philosophy for their own sake, and 
dreaming of high mental cultivation and profound learn- 
ing, will be rarely seen, we fear, when candidates for 
the " productive professions" form the overwhelming 
majority and create the esprit du corps. 

We do not feel confident that this new organization 
will elevate the tone of scholarship. One of the prin- 
ciples laid down reads thus : " The various courses 
should be so arranged, that in so far as practicable, 
every student might study what he chose, all that he 
chose, and nothing but what he chose." This principle 
is intended to obtain universally, unless the parent or 
4 



74 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

guardian should place his child or ward under the 
authoritative direction of the Faculty. Now it is pos- 
•sible for a student to choose either too much or too 
little, and either to renew the old evil of attempting so 
much as to lead to superficial acquisition, or to fall into 
the opposite evil of undertaking so little as to leave 
overmuch leisure on his hands. And we must not for- 
get that these students are of no higher grade than 
those who usually enter college ; youths, whose habits 
of application are yet to be formed, and their judgment 
ripened, and not, like the students of the German Uni- 
versities, young men grown, and formed under the dis- 
cipline of years spent in the Gymnasia, and who, there- 
fore, may be presumed to have some ground to stand 
upon when they make choice of the kind and the num- 
ber of the courses they are to pursue. 

Nor do we feel confident that the colleges can be 
made the best institutions for all those who are devoting 
themselves to the "productive professions." Some who 
wish to become particularly scientific, would find such 
an institution congenial. But of the multitude who 
contemplate the productive professions, the majority 
will feel inclined to take a more limited course, and to 
enter as early as possible upon their apprenticeship. 
Indeed, we are doubtful of Agricultural and Commer- 
cial Colleges, however developed. We believe that the 



UN1VER8ITV EDUCATION. 76 

common schools, generally, can be so improved, or 
schools of a degree higher, branching directly out from 
them, can be established, where instruction in the prin- 
ciples of Agriculture embracing Chemistry, and in the 
application of Chemistry and of other sciences to the 
arts, can be more fitly and successfully given. 

It appears to us that this plan of the Corporation of 
Brown University is defective, inasmuch as it attempts 
a union in one institution of three diflferent grades of 
education, which can be more philosophically and suc- 
cessfully conducted in three diflferent kinds of institu- 
tions. We have here combined something of the Uni- 
versity, a good deal of the College, and a good deal 
of the Commercial, Manufactural, and Agricultural 
School, in which the one element may preponderate over 
the others, but in which a harmonious action of the 
three, and a suitable development of all, it is hard to 
conceive of. But, granting that this scheme should be 
followed by a reasonable measure of success ; that, at 
least, it should sustain itself by the number of its stu- 
dents, still it cannot meett he highest educational want 
of our country, which, indeed, is the highest educational 
want of every country. It will not form the University 
where philosophical education can be carried out to its 
last results. -• 

We feel no hostility to the experiment of Brown 



76 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

University. The better it turns out, the better pleased 
we shall be. We shall even be happy to confess our 
error, if it shall appear that we have erred in any part 
of our criticism. The Report of the Corporation is an 
admirable one, and points out in a strong and lively 
manner the defects of our College system. The friends 
of the institution are now making a generous effort to 
place under its control the means of developing the new 
scheme. We cannot but feel a strong sympathy with 
this, and whatever may be the defects of the incipient 
movement, we repeat, that we shall cherish the hope, 
that eventually the noblest form of a literary institu- 
tion may come out of it. 

Another plan for improving our educational system 
is presented in the very able Report recently made to 
the Trustees of the University of Rochester, by the 
Committee appointed to draw up a Plan of Instruction 
for that Institution. 

The University of Rochester does not profess to be a 
University in the strict use of the word : in reality it 
contemplates only a collegial course of instruction. 
The plan proposed and adopted aims to make this 
course more effective, by insisting upon an adequate 
and thorough preparation for admission ; by adjusting the 
studies properly to the term of four years ; by adopting 
two courses — a classical and a scientific — adapted to 



UNIVERSITy KDUCATION. 11 

two different classes of students, the first to graduate as 
Bachelors of Arts, the second as Bachelors of Sciences ; 
by limiting the voluntary plan to a choice between these 
two courses ; and by demanding a mastery of the 
studies prescribed, to be decided by rigid examinations, 
ere candidates are admitted to the degrees for which 
they are enrolled. The Report expresses its leading 
principle in one sentence, " Thorough is the word 
which we need to have written upon all our seminaries 
and modes of teaching — upon the mind of every teacher, 
and on the daily task of every scholar." 

The Report is filled with just and admirable views 
of education. In proposing an improvement of our col- 
legial course, it undertakes a very important and neces- 
sary part of the great work of perfecting our educational 
system. If the University of Rochester is enabled to 
carry out its plan on the lofty principle it avows, it will 
make a real advance. We cannot but entertain cheer- 
ing hopes of its success from the intelligence and liberal 
spirit which pervade the Report and from the najnes 
which are appended to it. 

It is not necessary to our purpose to enter upon a 
critical examination of the plan itself. We only re- 
mark that the features to which we would take excep- 
tions are those which are unavoidable under the pres- 
ent limitations of our educational system. We have 



78 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 



only Colleges, and we feel the want of Universities ; 
hence, we are continually struggling to give our Colleges 
as much of a University character as possible. " It 
would be a beautiful consummation to it (Modern His- 
tory) if at an advanced period in the whole course, some 
higher instruction in History could be given by lectures, 
opening great philosophical views, tracing its currents 
in the channels of political organizations, viewing it in 
its connections with the science of Ethnology, and 
showing other aspects of this interesting subject." 

We perceive here a looking forward to, a yearning 
after a University element. The whole plan bears 
marks, and we say unavoidably, of an endeavor to bring 
into the College as much of the University as the enlight- 
ened Committee deem consistent with their aim at a 
more thorough scholarship. The want exists and must 
be in some degree met, and until we have Universities 
in full, perhaps nothing better or more worthy of com- 
mendation could be offered. Still the limited term of 
study must preclude a ripe scholarship : and after the 
College course is completed with all its advantages, the 
student who wishes to pursue his studies still further 
will look in vain for an Institution to receive him. In- 
deed the Report itself announces the very feature of 
the proposed plan to which we have called attention. 
" The time devoted to what is considered a good edu- 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 79 

cation with us is entirely too limited to produce any 
high degree of scholarship. We deceive ourselves if 
we suppose that by any improvement in our systems 
we shall raise to a very elevated point the standard of 
attainments in any particular department of science or 
literature, unless there be evinced a disposition on the 
part of our young men to devote to their education a 
larger space of time than they are now willing to spare. 
When that period arrives, we shall be led to found 
great Universities, each one of which shall be the centre 
and crown of a system of Colleges, exerting a useful 
control over them and completing the education thus 
commenced. Until that desirable consummation, all 
that can be done is, to administer our Colleges wisely, 
and provide in them, as far as ppssible, the oppor- 
tunity of more advanced instruction in some important 
branches, Avhere it is now too limited to answer the 
ends in view." The College is thus proposed, under an 
improved form, to supply the more advanced instruc- 
tion as far as possible until Universities shall arise. 

While these commendable, although limited experi- 
ments are making in different quarters, all scholars and 
all true friends of learning will do well to inquire, 
whether there really be any good reason why we should 
not now create in our country at least one great institu- 
tion of learning that may vie with the best of the old 



80 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

world. Have we not the means in abundance ? Shall 
the little principalities of Germany surpass these wealthy 
and powerful States 1 Nor is it a question that such 
institutions are required to crown and perfect a system 
of education. 

That the want of Universities is felt, is evident from 
the Report of Brown University, from the Report of the 
University of Rochester, and from the very evils com- 
plained of in the enlargement of the College course 
beyond the measure of the time allotted to collegial 
study. This general movement of the Colleges towards 
a higher position, by adding more studies to their cur- 
riculum, by endeavoring to shape themselves to more 
numerous classes of students, by introducing voluntary 
courses of study, by attempting lectures on the more 
advanced branches of study, and by assuming the name 
of University, is not a mere freak of ambitious folly, 
but an attempt to meet the demands of the age. The 
lofty-sounding curriculums of elementary schools for 
boys and girls, and the attempt to introduce University 
lectures even there, are indications also of an all-per- 
vading idea which is striving in various ways to become 
realized. Now, everything appears crude and dis- 
jointed, and sometimes even grotesque : the fused ele- 
ments are running in every direction, until they find the 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 81 

moulds which are to give them repose in proportion and 
symmetry. 

Our Colleges grasp at a University amplitude of 
studies, at University capacities and functions, and take 
the name of Universities, and yet Universities they 
cannot be within the prescribed limits, with the general 
paucity of learned material and appliances, and while 
offering themselves as institutions for students in the 
elementary course. They were elementary schools of a 
higher grade in their inception, such they have ever 
continued to be, as such their existence will ever be 
demanded, and as such they require to be perfected. 
By retaining their original designation, while endeavor- 
ing to graft upon them what belongs properly to a Uni- 
versity, we have only embarrassed them in their proper 
and possible functions, given them an equivocal char- 
acter, and lessened their usefulness. 

In order to perfect our Colleges, we need to bring 
them back to a more limited range of studies, compris- 
ing a thorough elementary discipline in languages and 
mathematics and other kindred studies, conducted with 
respect to a University course which is to follow. This 
University course might, in some of the older and more 
amply provided Colleges, be developed after the manner 
of the English Universities as they originally existed. 
The College, in this case, would not be enlarged to a 



82 "TNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

University after the present fashion, but the University 
•would be constituted as distinct — beginning its courses 
of lectures just where the College completes its disci- 
pline of prescribed lessons and the recitation-rooms. 

Between the University and the Colleges there would 
be no competition, and the relations would be altogether 
noble and generous : each would be necessary to the 
other, and tend to sustain the other ; for without Col- 
leges there can be no Universities, and in the Universi- 
ties alone can the Colleges find their ripened results. 

Education, in general, is of two kinds, and of two 
kinds only : an education imposed by tutors and gov- 
ernors ; and an education self-imposed. The first re- 
lates to that period of our being embracing childhood 
and youth, when the faculties are yet immature, and 
knowledge is in its elementary stages. The second 
relates to that period commencing with early manhood, 
when the faculties are comparatively ripened, when 
elementary knowledge has been attained, and actual 
experience has taken the place of imagination and 
conjecture. 

The first period requires of necessity authoritative 
direction, and plastic superintendence. The second 
period is competent, unless the first has been neglected 
and sufiered to run to waste, to form plans, make deci- 
sions, exercise choice, and to apply itself, as from itself, 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 83 

to self- culture, the formation of character, and the 
duties of life. 

All men do, in some sort, attain to both kinds of 
Education ; for all men are disciplined in some degree, 
well or ill, by a controlling power in early life ; and all 
men have some sense of independence and new respon- 
sibilities, when they reach the age of manhood. Edu- 
cation, of both kinds, is a law of our being more or less 
perfectly developed. 

The idea of Educational Institutions, embraces the 
reduction of educational means and influences to method 
and system. 

For the first period, various institutions have sprung 
up, from the most elementary Schools to Gymnasia or 
Colleges. For the second period there is only one 
institution — the University. 

According to the present condition of our Educational 
System, the higher, self-determined, and manly course 
of study belonging to this period, appears only as an 
imperfect appendage to the College under the form of 
certain voluntary studies, and a limited range of lectures 
on the loftier sciences, conducted under manifest em- 
barrassments arising from the want of a suitable prepa- 
ration on the part of the student, and the inadequate 
amount of time covered by the Collegiate course. 
Hence, where the higher culture is gained, it is gained 



■34 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION, 

rather by studies pursued by the individual amid the 
duties and cares of life after the institutions of learning 
have been departed from, than by means of the institu- 
tions themselves. The culture which men, who are de- 
termined to make the most of life, attain to amid its 
active pursuits, is invaluable, and will be prized no less 
by those who have studied at the University than by 
those who have not. But who does not see the value, 
nay, the necessity of an Institution which opens its 
doors to us just when we escape from governors and 
tutors, and provides us Avith all the means, and affords 
us the example and fellowship of manly self-discipline'? 
It is here alone that we can properly pursue the study 
of philosophy, which implies more than mere acquisition, 
and is the self-conscious growth of thought. It is here 
that we can become disciplined to independent scientific 
investigation, or lay broad and deep the foundations of 
professional and political life. It is here, also, that 
teachers and professors can be prepared for the scientific 
and classical departments of our educational institutions, 
in general. 

The University thus stands just where the first period 
of education closes, and where the other begins. The 
second period, indeed, never closes. But as education, 
during the first period, requires for its orderly develop- 
ment institutions of learning ; so education during the 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 85 

second, requires for its proper determination and suc- 
cessful prosecution, the formation of habits of independ- 
ent thought and study, an acquaintance with method, 
and a general survey of the field of knowledge, such as 
can be gained only in an institution especially founded 
and furnished for these high ends. The University re- 
ceives the alumnus of the Ahna Mater, and ripens him 
into the man prepared for the offices of the Church and 
the State, and for the service of Science and Letters. 

We do not entertain the doubt expressed in the Re- 
port of the Committee of the University of Rochester, 
as to a disposition on the part of our young men to de- 
vote to their education a larger space of time. The 
time which they now devote, is the time which has long 
been prescribed, and not the time which they have 
themselves appointed. On the other hand, the very 
pressure which the Colleges are under to enlarge their 
courses of study, shows plainly enough the demand for 
higher and more general education. We believe there 
are many young men who enter College smitten with the 
love of knowledge and with high hopes of a lofty educa- 
tion, and who now leave with disappointment, whose 
enthusiasm would at once rekindle at the prospect of a 
University. Nor is it an uncommon event for students 
now to seek in foreign countries for that which, as yet, 
they cannot find at home. 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 



Besides, we must calculate upon the effects which 
would naturally follow the creation of Universities. 
They would stand before the community as the culmi- 
nation of our educational system, — as containing every- 
thing to meet the highest wants and aspirations of the 
human mind, — as spreading out the fair fields of knowl- 
edge to their utmost extent, — as presenting an invita- 
tion to the ripest cultivation of every branch of science 
and literature, — as opening retreats where the studious 
may retire in the fullest satisfaction, — as affording the 
highest possibilities, and stimulating the noblest endea- 
vors. There would now no longer exist any temptation 
or necessity for the Colleges to make more or less suc- 
cessful, more or less abortive attempts to pass beyond 
their just measure, and to sacrifice their invaluable 
oflfices and benefits in trespassing upon grounds which 
do not naturally belong to them. They would explode 
those jejune schemes of education which seek to intro- 
duce juvenile minds, in the incipient stages of discipline, 
to the higher forms of education for which they'have 
acquired no preparation. They would define clearly 
the distinction between an elementary and preparatory 
discipline, and that independent and manly and self- 
determined pursuit of knowledge which belongs to stu- 
dents who have learned the art of study, and who know 
how to avail themselves of books and the lectures of 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 



87 



distinguished and finished scholars. Hence they would 
introduce order, method, and consistency into the whole 
course of education. Now, in entering upon the very 
first stages of education, the student would have the 
whole line of progress clearly marked out before him ; 
he would know the point to which he is tending, and 
where he might, without uncertainty, realize his highest 
hopes. The spirit of scholarship would thus be 
thoroughly awakened, the life of a scholar be clearly 
defined, and, instead of calculating the time of study, 
his regards would be fixed upon the ends of study — the 
glorious attainments to be realized. 

William of Champeaux did not wait until the spirit 
of scholarship had permeated masses of men : he com- 
menced his lectures, laid the foundations of a University, 
and created the spirit of scholarship. In our country 
and age, we are not called upon to create the spirit of 
scholarship, it already exists ; we have only to inform 
it with ideas, and to quicken it to a higher life. 

We hold, therefore, that Universities are natural and 
necessary institutions in a great system of public edu- 
cation. To delay their creation is to stop the hand 
upon the dial-plate which represents the progress of 
humanity. 

We have delayed this great work of founding Univer- 
sities too long. We cannot well afford to wait for any 



88 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

new sign from heaven before we begin this work. Is there 
any impertinence in calling upon all scholars and true 
friends of learning to consider whether we may not now 
create at least one great institution of learning that may 
vie with the best of the old world 1 And if we designed 
to show the spirit of this undertaking in a few words, we 
would say, that it is required for the successful develop- 
ment of such an institution, that it should neither 
cheapen its education at the expense of its intellectual 
life and aliment, nor be tempted to do so ; that it 
should be adequate to educate the many, and yet not 
be destroyed if compelled, for a time, to educate the 
few ; that it should be removed alike from the conflicts 
and jealousies of sects in the Church, and of parties in 
the State ; and that it should be faithfully consecrated 
to science, literature, and art. 

No part of our country presents equal facilities with 
the city of New York, for carrying out this great under- 
taking. New York is really the metropolitan city of 
our country. The centre of commercial activity, the 
vast reservoir of wealth, it takes the lead in the ele- 
gancies and splendor of life, in the arts of luxury and 
amusement. It is also the great emporium of books 
and the fine arts. Here resort the professors of music 
and of the arts of design. Here literary men are tak- 
ing up their abode. Here literary institutions of vari- 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 89 

ous kinds and grades have already come into being. 
Here are libraries established by associations or by 
individual munificence, which are enlarging themselves 
from year to year. Commerce, wealth, and elegance 
invite, nay, demand the invigorating life, the coun- 
terbalancing power and activity of intellectual cultiva- 
tion. Whatever is requisite for a great Institution 
of Learning can here be most readily collected ; and 
here are the means in profusion of creating whatever 
the well-being and glory of our city and of our country 
may require. By adding to the natural attractions of 
a metropolitan city the attractions of literature, sci- 
ence, and art, as embodied in a great University, stu- 
dents from every part of the Union would be naturally 
drawn together. We should thus have a fully appointed 
national Institution where the bonds of our nationality 
would be strengthened by the loftiest form of education, 
the sympathy of scholars, and the noblest productions 
of literature. 

A great Institution would collect together all that is^ 
now scattered and isolated among us, be the home of 
scholars, the nurse of scholarlike endeavors, the regulat- 
ing and harmonizing centre of thought and investiga- 
tion. Our whole population would feel the plastic 
power of intellectual development and progress ; so- 
ciety would receive new forms and habitudes from a 



90 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

learned class, and knowledges be widely diffused by pub- 
lic lectures under the direction of an elite corporation. 

But what shall be the form of this Institution ? 

We would take as models, in general, the University 
of Paris, the Universities of England before they were 
submerged in the Colleges, and the Universities of 
Germany. 

In the creation of such a University we would at the 
very beginning collect a choice, varied, and ample 
library, second to none in the world in books to aid 
students in attaining ripe scholarship, and in promoting 
investigation in every department of knowledge — a 
library distinguished more for valuable and directly 
available resources of scholarship than for curious and 
antiquarian collections, estimated rather by the charac- 
ter than the number of its volumes. At the same time 
we would collect all the necessary apparatus for Physics 
and Chemistry ; we would furnish a noble Observatory ; 
we would found a rich Cabinet of Natural History ; 
and we would open a gallery of the Fine Arts. 

Thus with a full store of the material of science, 
literature, and the arts, would we lay the foundation of 
a University. We should thus meet aspirations and 
wants which, in our country, have hitherto been only 
disappointed, and call into the walks of learning, by 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 



91 



commanding attractions, ingenuous minds that in de- 
spair have hitherto given themselves to other pursuits. 

We would constitute four Faculties, a Faculty of 
Philosophy and Science, a Faculty of Letters and Arts, 
a Faculty of Law, and a Faculty of Medicine. Under 
these should be comprised a sufficient number of pro- 
fessorships to make a proper distribution of the various 
subjects comprehended under the general titles. These 
professorships should be endowed to an extent to afford 
the incumbents a competency independently of tuition 
fees. The necessity of such endowments must be 
obvious when we reflect that studious men require un- 
disturbed minds, and that there are branches of knowl- 
edge which the interests of the world demand to have 
taught — such as Philology, Philosophy, the higher 
Astronomy, Mathematics, and Physics, while at the 
same time the number of students will be compara- 
tively few. 

It may be a question whether fees of tuition should 
be required of students, or whether the lectures, to- 
gether with the libraries and cabinets, should be thrown 
open gratuitously to the public, as is done in the Uni- 
versity of Paris. In this case the professorships, of 
course, Avould require to be more amply endowed. 

The Professors of the different Faculties should be 
required to give courses of lectures, on the subjects 



92 UNIVERSITY KDUCATION. 

assigned to them, to the Academical Members of the 
University. They should also be required to give 
popular courses to the public in general, on subjects 
selected by themselves. 

By the Academical Members, we mean those who 
shall be admitted upon examination, or upon a Bache- 
lor's degree from any College, and who shall enrol 
themselves as candidates for the University degrees. 

These degrees may be of two grades. The lower 
grade may comprise Master of Arts, Doctor of Philoso 
phy, Doctor of Medicine, and Bachelor of Laws ; the 
higher grade may comprise Doctor of Laws, Doctor of 
Theology, and other degrees to mark a high and honor- 
able advance in Medicine, and in Philosophy, Science, 
Letters and Art. 

Those of the first grade to be awarded after three or 
four years' study, and upon examination. Those of the 
second grade to be awarded as honorary degrees to men 
distinguished in the walks of life for their attainments 
and professional eminence, and to individuals who re- 
main for a still longer term of years connected with the 
University in learned pursuits. It is, of course, under- 
stood that the provisions of the University are to be 
such as to enable students to pursue favorite branches 
of science, or learning in general, for an indefinite term 
of years. 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 93 

One concurrent effect of this organization would be to 
elevate the character of Academical degrees, by making 
them the expression of real attainments, and honorable 
badges of real merit. 

In connection with the popular courses of lectures, 
there should, also, be established courses particularly- 
designed for the benefit of those engaged in commerce 
and the useful arts. This would give rise to another 
class of students besides the Academical, who might 
avail themselves of every advantage of the University 
possible to them under the degree of preparation they 
may have made, and under the pressure of daily busi- 
ness avocations. So also, others besides Academical 
students might attend the lectures in Law and Med- 
icine, or indeed any courses which they might please to 
select, but without being considered as candidates for 
University degrees. 

The result would be that the libraries, cabinets, 
laboratories, and lecture rooms of the University would 
become the resort of students of every grade ; it would 
thus become the great centre of intellectual activity, 
and a fountain of learning open to the whole populace. 

The different public libraries of the city might, also, 
be connected with it under their distinctive names ; 
and new libraries might be founded by new donors. 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 



under new names, in the same connection, like the 
different libraries of the English Universities. 

It will be remarked that we have omitted a Faculty 
of Theology in the constitution of this University. As 
each denomination of Christians has its peculiar Theo- 
logical views and interests, it would be impossible to 
unite them harmoniously in one Faculty. It is most 
expedient, therefore, to leave this branch to the Theo- 
logical Institutions already established by the several 
denominations. But still a connection of an unobjec- 
tionable character might be formed between Theological 
Institutions, especially those existing in this city, and 
the University, productive of very rich benefits. The 
students of the former might be admitted not only to 
the libraries of the latter, but also to the lectures on 
history, philosophy, philology, and general literature, 
when distinguished lecturers on these subjects gave 
promise of advantages additional to those enjoyed in the 
Theological "Institutions. Indeed an arrangement might 
be made by which students undergoing prescribed ex- 
aminations in philosophy, natural theology, philology, 
and history, and presenting certificates from their Pro- 
fessors of having completed satisfactorily their Theolo- 
gical courses, might be admitted to the degree of Bache- 
lor in Theology. Students of the Free Academy, also, 
after having completed their courses in that Institution, 



UNIVKRSITV KDUCATION. 95 

might be admitted into the University as Academical 
Students, or otherwise according to the preparation 
they may have made. 

Thus all our Institutions of learning would grow into 
a harmonious whole. 

With respect to its religious and moral character it 
should embody in its constitution : First, an entire 
separation from ecclesiastical control and a renuncia- 
tion of all sectarian partialities. Secondly, but as 
every thing that relates to human welfare, needs to be 
taken under the protecting and nurturing wings of 
Christianity, it should acknowledge Christianity to be 
the only true religion, the Bible to be of Divine inspira- 
tion, and the supreme rule of Faith and Duty, given 
freely to all men to be read and received with entire 
freedom of conscience and opinion. 

To carry out t'lese principles it should provide for an 
equal control of all denominations of Christians ac- 
knowledging these principles; it should institute a 
course of lectures on the evidences of Christianity and 
on Christian morality ; and the reading of the Scriptures 
together with prayer should constitute a daily public 
service to be conducted by the Professors in the pres- 
ence of the students. 

No religious profession, however, should be required 
for admission to the University, but it should be open to 
students of all creeds as well as of all nations. 



96 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

For the full development of such an Institution, 
ample funds are required ; but that private munificence 
can accomplish it we fully believe. If the attention of 
our community can be aroused to the necessity, the 
interest, the glory of such a work, the accomplishment 
of it cannot be long delayed. 

As examples of what private munificence can give, 
we need only appeal to various institutions of our land, 
and to the noble efibrt now making for Brown University. 
Nay, we need only look at the example of individuals in 
our own city with respect to the University of the City 
of New York ; an institution which, although, like other 
similar institutions bearing the name of University, will 
claim to be only a College, and, therefore, not in its 
nature calculated to call forth as lively and as general 
an interest as the creation of a great University. 
There has been expended in money and liabilities on 
this institution, we have been informed, not less than 
four hundred thousand dollars, obtained chiefly by sub- 
scriptions. 

Now all that will be required to put into full opera- 
tion a University like the one we propose, will be about 
the sum expended on the above-named College. We 
will call the sum four hundred and fifty thousand dollars. 

We can realize with this sum the following prepara- 
tions and endowments : 



UNIVERSITY EDUCAl'IOX. 97 

A University building, for lecture-rooms, &c. - $75,000 
A Library building, .... 50,000 

Books— 50,000 volumes,* - - - 50,000 

Observatory, to be located on Staten Island, with 

Instruments, . . . . 20,000 

Apparatus for Experiments in Physics and Chemistry, 4,000 
Incipient Cabinet of Natural History, - - 5,000 

Incipient Gallery of Fine Arts, ... 6,000 

Six fully endowed Professorships at $40,000 each, or 

ten partially endowed, at $24,000 each, - 240,000 



Total, - - $450,000 f 

The rate of endowment for the professorships would 
be regulated, within certain limits, by the decision of 
the question, whether fees of tuition should be required 
of students, or not. 

Such a foundation would ensure its permanent exist- 
ence, and enable it to commence at once with all the 
forms of University education. This once accomplished, 
additions would afterwards be made as required, by a 
community now thoroughly awake to the interests of a 
great institution, and constantly experiencing its benefits. 

Ten individuals giving 45,000 dollars each, would 
raise the sum required ; or, fifty giving 9,000 dollars 
each ; or, one hundred giving 4,500 dollars each ; or, 

* This is based on the average cost of the 20,000 volumes already 
collected in the Astor Library. 

t If that noble public benefaction — The Astor Library, could become 
the centre of a University, and if the contemplated Observatory at 
Brooklyn could be connected with it, then $120,000 of the above 
estimate would be deducted. 
5 



93 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

one thousand giving 450 dollars each. Or, we might 
distribute it as follows : 



Ten donors at 10,000 dollars each, 


$100,000 


Twenty " " 5,000 


u 


" 


100,000 


Forty " " 2,500 


a 


" 


- 100,000 


Eighty " " 1,000 


u 


a 


80,000 


Five hundred 140 


u 


u 


- 70,000 



$450,000 

No one will doubt that our city contains the indi- 
viduals who could do this with ease, by the above or by 
other distributions. 

The men who should endow such an Institution, 
would raise to themselves a grander and more im- 
perishable monument than the obelisks and pyramids of 
Egypt. 

That the plan we have thus generally indicated is 
not chimerical is demonstrated by the fact that similar 
Institutions exist and flourish in France and Germany. 
Take the University of Berlin as an example, with its 
hundred professors and its two thousand students. 
These Universities are supported by the State. In 
Germany, several Universities receive from thirty to 
fifty thousand dollars annually. The University of 
Berlin must receive still more. 

In our country we desire our Universities to be under 
the control neither of the Government, nor of any reli- 
gious denomination, for we wish to preserve such Insti- 



UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 99 

tutions free alike from political and sectarian influence 
and partialities. The different sects may have their 
Colleges and Theological Seminaries. But a great Uni- 
versity should be the resort simply of scholars, and be 
scrupulously devoted to those general interests of learn- 
ing which are common to men of every creed and of 
every political bias. Hence, it is required that they 
be established by private munificence, and be placed 
under a corporation of private individuals, comprising 
men devoted to science and letters and the command- 
ing interests of education. 

Did we live under a monarchical government. Uni- 
versities might be established by the government, and 
be connected with a national church ; and then by tax- 
ation the people would be compelled to sustain them. 
Let it not be our reproach that monarchies alone can 
establish Universities : let us prove to the world that 
we can voluntarily create them, and that the spirit of a 
free people is mightier to the production of everything 
that can elevate and adorn humanity than the will of 
princes. 

Universities are not the natural appendages or nurse- 
lings of monarchies. We have shown that they had 
their origin in the spirit of liberal and rational research, 
and that they were first established by individual enter- 
prise. In Germany, particularly, so rife have been 



100 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 

liberal opinions, and so strong the advoca.cy of consti- 
tutional governments in the Universities, that they have 
at times called out the most vigorous persecution from 
the State. 

They are eminently Institutions for the people, inas- 
much as they place within the reach of all who are dis- 
posed to high education, all the means for its attain- 
ment. They are fountains whence universal knowl- 
edge may be diffused, and whose all-pervading influ- 
ence goes to quicken, and to give order and consistency 
to every form of education. 

That will be a proud day for the city of New York 
when it shall see such an Institution arise in the midst 
of its marts of business and its splendid palaces, and 
giving to its prosperity the crown of intellectual glory. 

Why should we leave to another generation a work 
which we ourselves can accomplish, and which shall 
carry down our influence to the future under a form so 
good and beautiful, and so worthy of all that we claim 
for our enterprise, our far-seeing wisdom, our devotion 
to our country's welfare, and our confident hopes of its 
ultimate destiny? 

Should we fail in our expectations of finding in the 
community men with views ready to grasp this design, 
and a liberality adequate to meet its demands, then 
why may not a band of assimilated scholars enter upon 



UNIVERSI'J'Y EDUCATION. 101 

the work themselves, aided by a few liberal patrons of 
learning, or wholly unaided if need be, and renewing 
the scenes of past ages, institute courses of lectures 
like Roscelin, William of Champeaux, and Abelard ? 

Their success might at first be small ; but, doing 
their work ably, faithfully, and with indomitable perse- 
verance, they would ultimately prevail, and collect 
around them ingenuous young men, and awaken an en- 
thusiasm for glorious scholarship, and so commend 
themselves and their work to the public, that wealth 
and influence would be enforced into their service by a 
charm which human nature has always obeyed. Uni- 
versities meet a real want of humanity — a want which 
is now deeply felt in our own country ; and the exist- 
ing Universities of the old world, which we now from a 
distance admire and long for, stand forth as guarantees 
of our success. We earnestly hope that the struggle 
of such an experiment, in our day, may not be called 
for ; but, if it is, are there not scholars who dare to 
make it 1 



APPENDIX. 



I. 

CATALOGUE OF LECTURES 

Which were delivered in the University of Berlin during 
the winter term of 1829-30, beginning with October 29, and 
continuing about six months. 

(The names of the Professors are given in order to show how many 
Lectures are delivered by the same Professors. The courses are 
substantially the same with those now delivered.) 

THEOLOaY. 

Theological encyclopaedia and methodology (that is, general surve 
of theological scienc:, and the proper method of studying it), by Prof. 
Hengstenberg, once a week. Historico-critical introduction to the 
Old Testament and the Apocrypha, by Lie. Uhlemann, four times a 
week. The exercises of an exegetical society on the passages of the 
prophets respecting the Messiah, are directed by the same professor, 
once a week, gratis. Genesis explained in Latin, four times a week, 
gratis. Principal parts of Genesis explained by Prof. Beliermann, 
twice a week. The Psalms explained, four times a week, by Dr. 
Benary. The Book of Job, Prof. Hengstenberg, four times a week. 
Biblical antiquities, by Lie. von Gerlach, four times a week. Introduc- 
tion to the New Testament, by Lie. Rheinwald, four times a week. 
The Gospel of John, by Prof. Neander, five times a week. The First 
Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians, by Prof. Schleiermacher, four times 
a week. The Epistles to the Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians and 



104 APPENDIX. 

Colossians, by Lie. von Gerlach, four times a week. The two Epistles 
to the Corinthians, by Lie. Lommatyzsch, in Latin, five times a week. 
The Epistle of James, in Latin, the same, onee a week, gratis. The 
exercises in disputation of the two exegetie societies are continued by 
the same, gratis. Epistles of John, by Lie. Rheinwald, twice a week, 
gratis. The life of Christ, by Prof. Schleiermacher, five times a week. 
Ecclesiastical history, from the time of Gregory VII., by Prof. Nean- 
der, five times a week. Introduction to scientific theology, both in a 
moral and doctrinal point of view, by Prof. Marheinecke, five times a 
■week. Homiletics (all that relates to the preparation and delivery of 
religious discourses) , by Prof. Strauss, four times a week. Liturgies 
(the knowledge of liturgies), by the same, gratis. Exercises in preach- 
ing, directed by the same, twice a week, gratis. 

LAW. 

General survey of legal science {Juristische Ertcyclopaedie)^ by Prof. 
Biener and by Dr. Piitter, in Latin. Natural law, by Prof. Schmalz. 
Natural law, or philosophy of law, in connection with the gene- 
ral history of law, by Professor Gans, five times a week. In- 
stitutes of the Roman law, by Prof Klenze, six times a week, and 
Prof. Gans, five times a week. Pandects, by Prof. Savigny. Law of 
inheritance, by Dr. Moosdorfer-Rossberger and by Dr. RadorfF. Ex- 
ternal history of Roman law, by Dr. Moosdorfer-Rossberger, twice a 
week, gratis. History of the Roman civil process, by Dr. Putter, two 
hours a week, in Latin. Ulpian's fi'agments explained by Dr. Radorff, 
twice a week, gratis. Canon law, by Prof Schmalz, five times a 
week ; by Dr. Laspeyres, five times a week ; Dr. Moosdorfer-Rossber- 
ger, four times a week ; Dr. Putter at twelve o'clock, and Dr. Steltzer 
at three o'clock. History of the German empire and law by Professor 
Homeyer. History and antiquities of German law, with a short sur- 
vey of the history of the empire, by Prof Phillips. German private 
and feudal law, by Prof von Lancizolle and by Prof Phillips. Feudal 
law, by Dr. Moosdorfer-Rossberger, four times a week. Forest and 
game law, by Dr. Laspeyres. Criminal law, by Prof. Biener, with 
the criminal process, five times a week ; Prof Jarcke, the same, six 
times a week. History of criminal law, by Prof. Klenze, twice a week, 
gratis. On remarkable criminal cases, by Prof. Jarcke and Dr. Las- 
peyres. German territorial and federative law, by Prof. Schmalz, six 
times a week, gratis. Ancient constitution of the empire, and consti- 
tution of the confederacy, by Professor Lancizolle. On the constitution 
of Great Britain, by Professor Phillips, once a week. Common 
and Prussian civil process, by Professor Schmalz, four times a 
week ; Professor Jarcke, five times a week ; Dr. Moosdorfer- 
Rossberger, four times, and Dr. RadorfF, four times a week. Prac- 
tical exercises directed by Professor Schmalz, in connection with his 
lectures on the criminal process, on Saturdays. Dr. Moosdorfer-Ross- 
berger offers to take charge of examinations and reviews of past 
studies. 



APPENDIX. 105 



MEDICINE. 



Medical encyclopaedia and methodology, by Prof. Casper, once a 
week, gratis. History of Medicine, by Prof Hecker, twice a week, 
gratis. History of accouchement, by Dr. von Siebold, once a week. 
Lives and doings of great physicians, by Dr. Damerow, once a week, 
gratis. Explanations of the aphorisms of Hippocrates, continued by 
Prof. Bartels, once a week, gratis. Anatomy, six times a week, by 
Prof. Rudolphi. Complete anatomy, by Prof. Schlemm, four times a 
week. Osteology, by Prof Knape, four times a week. Syndesmolo- 
gy, the same, twice a week, gratis. On aponeuroses, by Prof. Schlemm, 
twice a week, gratis. Splanchnology, by Prof Knape, four times a 
week. Anatomy of the organs of the senses and those of the foetus, by 
Prof Rudolphi, twice a week, gratis. Practical exercises in anatomy, 
directed by Profs. Knape and Rudolphi. Anthropology, by Prof. 
Kranichfeld, twice a week. Physiology, by Prof. SchuUz, four times 
a week. Complete physiology, by Prof Eck, six times a week. The 
first part of the theoretico-medical institutions, containing the elements 
of physiology, by the same, four times a week. Comparative physio- 
logy, by Prof. Horkel, six times a week. A survey of the history of 
life, the formation and propagation of organic bodies, by Dr. Brandt, 
once a week, gratis. Pathology, by Prof. Hufeland, junior, four times 
a week. General pathology, by Prof Hecker, four times a week. 
Particular pathology, the same, six times a week. The same accord- 
ing to his own system, by Prof. Reich, six times a week. Pathologi- 
cal anatomy, by Prof Rudolphi, four times a week. On regular and 
monstrous formations in natural bodies, by Dr. Ratzeburg, twice a 
week. Semeiotics, (the doctrine of symptoms), by Prof Hufeland, 
junior, twice a week, gratis. Pharmacology, by Prof Link, six times 
a week. The same, in connection with natural history and materia 
medica, explained by frequent demonstrations, with Dr. Ratzeburg and 
Dr. Brandt ; the former teaches the mineralogical and zoological part, 
three times a week ; the latter the botanical part, three times a week. 
Doctrine of physics, by Prof Osann, six times a week. The same ex- 
plained by exhibiting officinal plants and minerals, by Prof Schultz, five 
times a week. Practical lectures on medicines, by Dr. Sundelin, four 
times a week. On officinal and poisonous plants, by Prof Schultz, 
twice a week, gratis. On the mineral waters of Germany, by Prof. 
Osann, twice a week, gratis. The art of preparing recipes, treated 
generally and particularly, by Prof Casper, twice a week ; practical 
exercises continued. General therapeutics, by Dr. Oppert, three times 
a week. Dietetics and macrobiotics (q. v.), by Prof Hufeland, senior, 
twice a week. Special pathology and therapeutics (q. v.) , hy Prof. 
Bartels, five times a week. The same, by Prof Wagner, six times a 
week. Therapeutics of acute and chronic diseases in particular, by 
Prof Horn, four times a week. Nosological therapeutics particularly 
treated, by Prof Wolfart, four times a week. Second part of particular 
therapeutics, by Prof Hufeland, junior, six times a week. On the 



106 APPENDIX. 

diseases appearing during wars, in camps as well as in cities, by Prof. 
Wolfarl, twice a week. The doctrine of mental disorders, with re- 
marks, theoretical and practical, on their cure, by Dr. Damerow, four 
times a week. Doctrine of the diagnosis and cure of syphilitic diseas- 
es, by Prof. Horn, twice a week, gratis. The same, by Dr. Oppert, 
twice a week, gratis. Pathology and therapeutics of diseases having 
a material origin, by Dr. Sundelin, twice a week, gratis. Doctrine of 
the diseases of children, by Prof. Casper, twice a week, gratis. The 
same, by Prof Reich, gratis. Doctrine of the diseases of children and 
women, by Dr. Friedlander, twice a week. Doctrine of the diseases 
of the eye, by Prof. Jiingken, five times a week, gratis. Instruction 
in operations of the eye, the same, p7-ivatissime.'* Anatomy, physiolo- 
gy, pathology and therapeutics of the human eye, in connection with 
the operations on it, by Prof. Kranichfeld, three times a week. Gene- 
ral and special surgery, by Prof. Jiingken, six times a week. General 
surgery, by Prof. Kluge, twice a week. Akiurgy, or the doctrine of 
all surgical operations, by Prof, von Grafe, four times a week. The 
same, by Prof Rurt, six times a week. Operations on the dead subject 
are separate from these. On fractures and dislocations, by Prof. Kluge, 
once a week. Complete view of the means of curing diseases of the 
teeth, by Dr. Hesse, twice a week. All that relates to birth {Geburts- 
kunde) , by Prof. Busch, five times a week. Elements of midwifery, 
by Prof. Kluge, twice a week, gratis. The same ; lectures on theoret- 
ical and practical obstetrics ; and at two other hours exercises take 
place. Prof. Busch proposes to undertake a course of obstetrical opera- 
tions, with exercises on the model. Prof Busch will have, on Satur- 
days, an obstetrical examination. Theoretical and practical obstetrics, 
by Dr. Friedlander, three times a week. The same, by Dr. von Sie- 
bold, four times a week. He offers also to direct the exercises on the 
model. Clinical medical lectures in the Charite hospital, dail)'^, by 
Prof Bartels. Clinical exercises in the royal polyclinical institute, 
directed by Prof. Hufeland, senior, with Profs. Osann and Busse. Clini- 
cal directions for his hearers, by Prof. Wolfart. Directions for medical 
and forensic-medical practice, given by Prof. Wagner, six times a 
week. Clinical lectures on surgery, and diseases of the eye, in the 
royal clinico-surgical institute of the university, directed by Professor 
Grafe, four times a week. Practical exercises at the sick-bed in sur- 
gical clinics, in the Charite hospital, directed by Prof. Rurt, four times 
a week. Polyclinics, by the same, every day. Practical exercises at 
the sick-bed of patients with disorders of the eye, in the Charite hos- 
pital, directed by Prof Jiingken, five times a week. On venereal dis- 
eases, Prof Kluge will give, twice a week, clinical instruction in the 
Charite hospitaL Obstetrical clinics in the royal lying-in hospital, 

■^ Lectures in the German universities are eitlier publice (gratis), privatim (tlie 
general lectures, paid for by. the student, from one louis d'or to five and six : 
these are meant if nothing is said in the catalogue), or priualissime (which are 
only for a fevc, who may choose to attend : at these, the price is higher, and the 
manner of in.struction more familiar.) 



AI'F'ENDIX. 107 

and the polyclinics connected with it, directed four times a week, by 
Prof. Busch. Obstetrical clinics, by Dr. Friedlander, three times a 
week. Forensic anthropology, by Prof. Knape, throe times a week. 
Forensic medicine for jiliysicians and jnri.sts. with practical exercises in 
the drawing up of opinions, &c., by Frof. Casper, three times a week. 
The same, by Dr. Barez, four times a week. Medical police, by Prolessor 
Wagner, twice a week, gratis. Dr. Sundelin offers to take charge of 
reviews of all parts of medical study. Veterinary art, by Dr. Reckle- 
ben, three times a week. Doctrine of pestilential disorders among all 
domestic animals, in connection with forensic veterinary medicine, by 
the same, three times a week. 

PHILOSOPHICAL SCIENCES. 

Philosophical method, and the general survey of sciences, by Dr. 
Michelet, in connection with an introduction to the last systems of phi- 
losophy since Kant, four times a week, gratis. Foundation of philoso- 
phy, or the theory of all knowledge, by Dr. Schopenhauer, three times 
a week. Logic, five times a week, by Prof Kitter. Logic, and a gen- 
eral survey of philosophy, by Dr. Beneke, four times a week. Logic 
and metaphysics, by Prof Henning, five times a week. Etliics, by 
Prof Ritter, four times a week. Psychology, and doctrine of mental 
diseases, by Dr. Beneke, five times a week. Psychology, six times a 
week, by Dr. von Iveyserlingk. On the knowledge of God, by Prof. 
Ritter, once a week, gratis. Esthetics, or general doctrine of arts, by 
Prof Tolken, four times a week. Fundamental ideas of lesthetics, by 
Dr. Keyserlingk, four times a week. History of philosophy, by Prof 
Hegel, five times a week. Critical history of distinguished metaphy- 
sical systems, by Dr. Beneke, once a week. Philosophy of history, by 
Prof. Stuhr, five times a week. 



MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES. 

Differential calculus, by Prof Dirksen, three times a week. Ana- 
lytical statics, the same, three times a week. Application of the inte- 
gral calculus to geometry, by the same, once a week, gratis. Calcula- 
tion of probabilities, by Dr. Dirichlet. Analysis of infinites, by the 
same. Introduction to algebra and analysis, once a week, gratis, by 
Prof Ohm. Analytical plane and spherical trigonometry, also analy- 
tical geometry, four times a week, by the same. Differential and 
integral calculus, by the same, four times a week. Algebra, six times 
a week, by Prof Ideler. On conic sections, three times a week, by 
the same. Planimetry, twice a week, by Prof Griison. Theoretical 
astronomy, three times a week, by Dr. Encke. Cosmography, twice 
a week, by Prof Oltmanns. 



108 APPE.MDIX, 



iNATURAL SCIENCES. 

General physics, three times a week, by Prof. Erman. Magnetism 
and electricity, the same, three times a week. The first part of me- 
chanical physics, four times a week, byTrof. Fischer. Experimental 
physics, four times a week, by Prof. Hermbstadt. The same, by Prof. 
Turte, twice a week. Elements of physics and chemistry, with ex- 
periments, by the same. General theoretical and practical chemistry, 
with experiments, six times a week, by Prof Hermbstadt. Theoreti- 
cal and practical pharmacy, or doctrine of the knowledge and prepa- 
ration of chemical medicines, five times a week, by the same. 
Zocchemy, once a week, by Prof Mitscherlich, gratis. Experimental 
chemistry, four times a week, by the same. Theoretical chemistry, 
with particular reference to technology, five times a week, by Prof. 
Schubarth. Introduction to chemistry, by the same, once a week, 
gratis. Examinations in chemistry, by the same, three times a week. 
On chemical operations, once a week, by Prof. Hermbstadt. Pharma- 
ceutic chemistry, three times a week, by Prof. Rose. On some organ- 
ic ofiicinal preparations, once a week, gratis, by the same. Exercises 
in chemical analysis, by the same, daily. General zoology, six times 
a week, by Prof. Lichtenstein. Natural history of the ruminant ani- 
mals, by the same, twice a week, gratis. Natural history of the mam- 
malia, by Dr. Wiegmann, twice a week, gratis. General zoology, five 
times a week, by the same. General entomology, twice a week, by 
Prof Klug, gratis. On the laws of descriptive botany, once a week, 
gratis, by Prof Hayne. Physiology of vegetables, especially of trees 
and shrubs, three times a week, by the same. On cryptogamic plants, 
gratis, by Prof von Schlechtendal. On nutritive, officinal and poison- 
ous plants, according to the natural families, four times a week, by the 
same. Mineralogy, six times a week, by Prof. Weiss. Descriptive 
crystallography, by the same, four times a week. The mineralogical 
part of the knowledge of soils for officers of the forest, twice a w^eek, 
by the same. 



POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE SCIENCES. 

Public law^ and politics, by Prof von Raumer, four times a week. 
On the modern public law and constitutions of government in both 
hemispheres, by Prof. Gans, once a week, gratis. Came7-al-Wissen- 
chaft (science of administration) , four times a week, by Prof Schmalz. 
History of the Prussian state since the beginning of the seventeenth 
century, wath particular reference to the progress of public law, by 
Prof von Henning, once a week, gratis. General statistics of Europe, 
four tim.es a week, by Prof. Hoffmann. Statistics of the German eon- 
federation, twice a week, by Dr. Stein. Statistics of Prussia, twice a 
week, gratis, by Prof Hoffmann. Public and adminstrative law of 



-APPENDIX. lOy 

Prussia, in connection with Prussian statistics, four times a week, by 
Prof, von Henning. Science of finances, or doctrine of the administra- 
tion of public revenue, four times a week, by Prof Hoffmann. Agri- 
cultural preparatory sciences, twice a week, by Prof Storig. Science 
of agriculture, with particular reference to the wants of the cameralist, 
three times a week, by the same. On cattle, three times a week, 
by the same. General survey of forest sciences, four times 
a week, by Professor Pfeil. Knowledge and care of forests in a 
politico- economical respect, three times a week, by the same. Valua- 
tion and management of forests, three times a week, by the same. The 
same lecturer is ready to conduct an examination in all forest sciences, 
six times a week. Cameral chemistry, or application of chemistry 
to agriculture, the forest sciences, and the mechanic arts, with experi- 
ments, three times a week, by Prof Hermbstiidt. 

HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY. 

History of antiquity, four times a week, by Dr. E. A. Schmidt. 
History of the middle ages, four times a week, by Prof Wilken. 
Modern history, four times a week, by Prof von Raumer. History of 
the eighteenth century, twice a week, gratis, by Dr. E. A. Schmidt. 
History of Prussia, from the beginning of the seventeenth century to 
the year 1813, six times a week, by Prof Stuhr. History of the war 
of liberation, during 1813-15, twice a week, by the same. Historico- 
critical exercises are held once a week, by Prof Wilken. General 
geography, five times a week, by Prof Ritter. The same, by Prof. 
Zeune, twice a week. Hydrography and physiography of the West 
Indies and the neighboring coasts, once a week, by Prof Oltmanns, 
gratis. Determination of geographical longitude and latitude from as- 
tronomical observations, twice a week, by the same. 

HISTORY OF ART. 

History, principles and monuments of Greek architecture, three times 
a week, by Prof Tiilken. History, principles and monuments of archi- 
tecture in the middle ages, from the times of Justinian to the sixteenth 
century, by the same, twice a week. History of architecture among 
the Greeks, twice a week, gratis, by Prof Hirt. Principles of the fine 
arts, by the same. On the art of painting among the ancients, gratis, 
once a week, by Prof Tolken. 

PHILOLOGICAL SCIENCES, &c. 

General survey of the philological sciences and the method of study- 
ing them, four times a week, by Dr. Rotscher. General history of the 



110 APPENDIX. 

literature of antiquity, the middle ages, and of modern times, iive times 
a week, by Prof. Hotho. Greek antiquities, with particular reference 
to politics and the administration of justice, five times a week, by Prof. 
Bockh. Agamemnon and the Choephori of ^Eschylus, three times a 
week, by Prof. Lachmann. The Seven against Thebes of ^Eschylus, 
four times a week, by Dr. Lange. The Philoctetes and Antigone of 
Sophocles, in connection with an introduction, on the nature and history 
of the Greek tragedy, four times a week, by Dr. Heyse. The Clouds 
of Aristophanes, twice a week, by Dr. Rotscher, gratis. The Nicoma- 
chic ethics of Aristotle explained in connection with an introduction to 
the philosophy of Aristotle in general, twice a week, by Dr. Michelet. 
Tiiucydides, by Prof Bekker, twice a week. Practical exercises in 
Latin and Greek, directed by the same. Latin style taught by Prof. 
Zumpt, four times a week. On Catullus, and the lyrical poetry of the 
Romans in general, with explanations of select poems of Catullus, twice 
a week, by Dr. Heyse. Cicero's fifth book against Verres, explained 
twice a week, gratis, by Prof. Zumpt. Histories of Tacitus, four times 
a week, by Bockh. Ancient geography of Palestine, once a week, 
gratis, by Prof. Ritter. Hebrew grammar, by Dr. Uhlemann, -with a 
grammatical explanation of the book of Joshua, twice a week, gratis. 
Exegetical exercises in the Old Testament, directed by Dr. Benary, 
and difficult parts of the Hebrew grammar explained, three times a 
week, gratis. Chaldee grammar, with an explanation of select parts 
of the Chaldee Bible and Targums, by the same, three times a week, 
gratis. Elements of Syrian grammar, twice a week, by Prof Hengs- 
tenberg. Arabian grammar, with explanation of the Arabian chresto- 
mathy of Kosegarten, three times a week, by Prof. Wilken. Select 
Arabian historians and poets explained by Dr. Benary, four times a 
week. Grammar of Sanscrit, three times a week, gratis, by Professor 
Bopp. Select passages of the Malui- Bhurata explained by the same, 
twice a week, gratis. Persian grammar, by Wilken, once a week, 
gratis. Ancient German and Northern mythology, twice a week, 
gratis, by Prof, von der Hagen. On the ancient northern Edda-songs 
of the Nibelungs, the same, four times a week. History of the litera- 
ture of the middle ages and modern times, four times a week, by the 
same. Elements of the old and middle High German grammar, five 
times a week, by Prof Lachmann. Dante's Purgatory explained, 
twice a week, by Prof. F. W. V. Schmidt, gratis. History of modern 
poetry, four .times a week, by the same.- On the latest period of irony 
and mysticism in poetry and aesthetics, or on Frederic von Schlegel's 
Novalis, L. Tiek's ancj Solj^er's writings, once a week, by Prof. Hotho. 
Dante's Divina Comedia is explained in the Italian language, by Mr. 
Fabbrucci, gratis. Italian authors, such as his hearers may select, ex- 
plained, by the same, four times a week. Elements of Italian gram- 
mar, privatissime, by the same. Shakspeare, by Dr. von Seymour. 
Private instruction in the English language, by the same. Some 
French tragedies explained, and the history of the French tragedy giv- 
en in French, by Mr. Franceson. Instruction, privatissime, in French, 



APPENDIX. Ill 

Spanish and Italian, by the same. The director Klein superintends the 
academical choir for church rnusic, in which students can take part, 
gratis. Instruction in fencing and vaulting, by Mr. Felmy and Mr. 
Eiselen. The latter also gives instruction in gymnastics in general. 
Instruction in riding in the royal and several private riding schools. 

PUBLIC LEARNED INSTITUTIONS. 

The royal library is daily open for students. The observatory, the 
botanic garden, the anatomical, zootomical and zoological museum, the 
collection of minerals, of surgical instruments and bandages, of casts 
and works of art, &c., are used in the lectures, and can be visited by 
the students. Prof Hengstenberg directs the exegetic exercises of the 
theological seminary; the e.xercises in ecclesiastical history and the 
history of dogmas are directed by Profs. Marheinecke and Neander. Ih 
the philological seminary. Prof Bockh will hear the students explain 
Demosthenes, and direct the other exercises of the same. Prof. Lach- 
mann will hear the students explain the odes of Horace. 

[Encylopcedia Americana. 

II. 

FACULTIES AND STUDENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF 
BERLIN, 1850. 



THEOLOGY. 



No. Professors. 

5 



No. Professors 
Extraordinary. 

5 


No. Lecturers, 
or Docentes. 

6 


LAW. 




4 


5 


MEDICINE. 




7 


18 


PHILOSOPHY. 





12 



COMPRISING .METAPHYSICS, PHILOLOGY, HISTORY, ANTIQUI- 
TIES, MATHEMATICS, AND NATURAL SCIENCE. 

36 28 30 

BESIDES, FOUR .MASTERS OF .MODERN LANGUAGES. 



112 APPENDIX. 



MATRICULATED STUDENTS. 

Theology, . . .184 

Law, .'570 

Medicine, . . . . 223 

Philosophy, . . . 335 

Total, . 1312 

STUDENTS WHO HEAR LECTURES, BUT ARE NOT MA- 
TRICULATED. 

Surgery, ......... 20 

Pharmacy, . . . 116 

Students of the Frederick William Institute, ... 72 

Students of the Medico-Chirurgical Academy, for the Army, 77 

Students of the Architectural School, .... 229 

Students of the Mining School, SI 

Stipendiary Students of the Academy of Arts, . . 6 
Students of the Horticultural Institute, . . . .6 

Total, . . . . . . 547 

Whole No. Students, . . . . . . . 1857 



III. 

FACULTIES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF LEIPSIC, 1850. 

THEOLOGY. 

NO. Professors. SvIordXy. ^^ D--*-' 

6 6 2 

LAW. 
6 6 3 

MEDICINE. 
9 S 9 

PHILOSOPHY. 

21 7 7 



APPENDIX. 113 



IV. 



Can the German Universities be accepted in full, as 
models for our own Universities? 

As literal Cyclopcedias^ supplying all the means of the 
higher education — Vinstruction superieure — they undoubt- 
edly can be thus accepted. In the details of the courses 
of lectures they cannot be thus accepted. The immense 
division of subjects which obtains in the German Uni- 
versities may be questionable in itself, as begetting too 
great a comminution of ideas for a compact and orderly 
system. But granting that this objection is removed by 
the logical character of the division itself, and by the fact 
that the same professor lectures on several branches, so as 
to preserve a due relation of ideas to an organic whole in 
his particular department ; still, the present condition of 
ovir learning, unused to the Germanic attenuation of 
thought, the difficulty, perhaps, at present of collecting a 
sufficient number of professors for so extensive a division 
of labor, and the impossibility of, at once, sustaining 
them, the obvious necessity of a somewhat gradual de- 
velopment of even the most perfect system, and the fact 
that our immediate wants can be fully met, and a power- 
ful stimulus given to learning, and the first sure steps 
taken to reach the highest order of University education, 
with a more limited number of professorships embracing 
the cardinal branches of knowledge, and filled by men of 
undoubted qualifications, suggest an organization more 
circumscribed and compact than that of Germany, or 
that of France. It is mainly important that we begin 
on right principles and in a way to do an effective work, 



114 APPENDIX. 

and leave the fecundity and ramifications of our growth 
to time and circumstances. 

We would suggest, therefore, the following distribution 
of subjects in two of the faculties, leaving those of Law 
and Medicine to the determination of leading minds in 
their, respective professions : — 

FACULTY OF PHILOSOPHY AND SCIENCE. 

1. Systematic Philosophy. 2. History of Philosophy. 
3. The Philosophy of History. 4. Logic. 5. Ethics and 
the Evidences of Christianity. 6. The Higher Mathema- 
tics. 7. Astronomy. 8. Physics. 9. Chemistry. 10. 
Natural History. 

FACULTY OF LETTERS AND ARTS. 

1. Philology. 2. Greek Language and Literature. 
3. Latin Language and Literature. 4. Oriental Lan- 
guages. 5. Rhetoric and English Literature. 6. Mod- 
ern Literature. 7. The History of the Fine Arts. 8. 
The Arts of Design. 

These subjects might at first be distributed among ten 
or twelve Professors, aided by Lecturers, selected from 
among distinguished men, who, without formally accepting 
appointments in the University, might consent to deliver 
courses of Lectures during particular seasons of the year. 



PROGRAMME DES COURS 

DE LA SORBONNE (FacultISs des Sciences et des Lettres);— DE LA 
FACULTE DE DROIT ;— DE LA FACULTE DE MEDECINE ;— DE L'E- 
COLE DE PHARMACIE ;— DU COLLEGE DE FRANCE ;— DE LA BIB- 
LIOTHEQUE NATIONALE ;— DU MUSEUM D'HISTOIRE NATURELLE 



SECOND SEMESTRE 1850. 



PR0FE9SEURS. 



SORBONNE (FACULTE DES SCIENCES). 



/8h. Ir2.. 
c \ Midi 1ft . 
J 1 1 heure.. 

(ah. 1?2. 



/ iOh. 1?2, 
5J \ 10 h. 1/2, 
S i Midi 1/2, 

( 2 h. 1?2. 



ti h. 1/2. , 
I Midi 1/2. 
I 1 heure.. 

2h. 1/2.. 



Mecanique 

Chimie 

Astronomie mathematique 

.\Tecaniqne physique et experimentale. 



Sturm. 

Dumas ou Persoz. 

Cauchy. 

Delaunay. 



Organographie vegetale 

Calcul des probabilites 

Anatomie, Pliysiol. comp. et Zoologie. 
Physique 



Botanique, Anat. et Physiol. v6getales. 

Algebre superieure. 

Gtometrie superieure 

Geologic 



jrai. 



Calcul.ditt'eientiel et integ 

Chimie 

Astronomie mathematique 

V16canique physique et experimentale.. 



Aug. Saint- Hilaire. 

Lame. 

De Blainville. 

Pouillet. 



De Jussieu. 
Duhamel. 
Chasles. 
Constant-Prevost. 



Lefebure de Fourcy. 
Dumas ou Persoz. 
Cauchy. 
Delaunay. 



8 h. 1/2. , 
10 h. 1/2, 
10 h. 1/2, 
Midi 1/2, 
_2 h. 1/2. , 
8h. 1/2.. 
10 h. 1/2, 
10 h. 1/2, 
Midi 1/2, 
2h. 1/2., 



vi6caniquc 

Botanique., Anat. et Physiol, vegetales. 

.A.lgebre superieure 

Geometric superieure 

Geologie 



Sturm. 

De Jussieu. 

Duhamel. 

Chasles. 

Contrant-Pr^vost. 



Calcul dilterentiel integral 

Organographie vegetale 

Calcul des probabilites 

.A.nat., PhysioL comp. et Zoologie. 
Physique 



Lclebure de t'ourcy. 

Aug. Saint-Hilaire. 

Lame. 

De Blainville. 

Pouillet. 



SORBONNE (FACULTE DES LETTRES). 



9 heures . 

10 h. 1/2. 
Midi.... 
1 h. 1/2.. 
3 heures. 



Histoire de la Philosophic ancienne • 

Geograpliie 

Philosophic 

Litterature etrangere 

Histoire de la Philosophie modeme. 



.Jules Simon. 
Guigniaut. 
E. Saisset. 
Ozanam. 
Damiron. 






10 h. 1/2. 
Midi . . . 
3 heures. 



Poesie latine 

Histoire ancienne 

Histoire de la Philosophie moderne. 



Patin. 

Rosseeuw St-Hilaire. 

Damiron. 



116 



APPENDIX, 



( 9heures 
\ 10 h. l22 

< Midi . . . 
i 1 h. 1/2.. 
V. Sheures, 



' 9 lieures. 

I lOh. l22. 

I Midi.... 

1 h. 1?2.. 



( 10 h. 1/2 , 
g ) Midi . . . 
> ) 1 h. 1?2., 

( 3 lieures 



Qheures 
10 h. 1^2 
Midi . . , 
1 h. 1;2.. 
3 heures 



SECOND SEMESTRE 1850. 



Histoire moderne 

Poesie latine. • . • 

Poesie francaise 

Litterature grecque 

Histoire de la Philosophie anoienne. 



Pliilosophie 

Geographie . 

Eloquence latine . . . 
Litterature grecque . 
Histoire moderne.. . . 
Eloquence latine.. . . 

Philosophie 

Eloquence francaise. 



Eloquence francaise. . 
Litterature grecque. . 

Histoire ancienne 

Litterature etrangere. 
Poesie francaise 



PROFESSEURS. 



H. Wallon. 
Patin. 
Caboche. 
Egger. 
Jules Simon. 



A. Garnier. 
Gujgniaut. 
E. Havet. 
Egger. 



H. Wallon 
E. Havet. 
A. Garnier. 
Geruzez. 



Geruzez. 
Ch. Benoit. 
Rosseeuw St-Hilaire. 
Ozanam. 
Caboche. 



FACULTE DE DROIT. 



8 heures . 
9"h. 3?4. . 

9 h. 1/2.. 
11 h. 1/2. 
Sheures. 
11 h. 1?2. 
1 heure.. 
1 heure.. 



7 h. Ii2.. 

7 h. 1?2. . 

8 heures. 

8 h. 3;4. . 

9 heures. 
] 10 h. l22. 
} 9 heures. 

10 heures 
1 11 h. 1?4. 
»- 11 h. 3^4. 



Code civil francais, Ire annee 

Id. ^ id 

Code civil francais, 2e annee 

Id. ' id 

Code civil francais, 3e ann6e 

Id. ' id 

Introduction generale a I'etude du droit 
Histoire du droit rom. et du droit franc. 



Droit crim. et legislation penale comp.. . 

Droit administratif. 

Droit des gens 

Procedure civile 

Institutes de Justinien 

Id. id 

Droit constitutionnel francais 

Pandectes 

Code de Commerce. 

Legislation crim. et Proced. civ. et crira. 



Valette. 

Bugnet. 

Duranton. 

Perreyve. 

Demante. 

Oudot. 

De Portets. 

Devalroger. 



Ortolan. 

Roustain. 

Royer-CoUard. 

Colmet Daage. 

Ducaurroy. 

Blondeau. 

Vuatrin. 

Pellat. 

Bravard. 

Bonnier. 



^ /- 10 h. 1/2. 

r \ Midi .... 

S. ) 1 h. Ip. . 

^ ( 3 heures . 



w 



10 h. 1/2. 
Sheures. 
4 heures. 

1 heure.. 

2 heures. 



FACULTE DE MEDECINE. 

Histoire naturelle medicale . 

Accouch., malad. des fern, et des enf.... . 

Physique medicale 

Pathologic medicale 

Pharmacie et Cliimie organique 

Pathologic chirurgicale 

Anatomie pathologique 

Hygiene ••• • 

Therapeutique et Matiere medicale. . . , 



Richard. 
Moreau. 
Gavarret. 
Piorry. 



"Wurtz. 

Richet. 

Cruveilhier. 

Royer-CoUard. 

Trousseau 



APPENDIX. 



117 



SECOND SEMES TRE 1850. 



de 6 a 10 

heures 

du matia 



PROFESS EURS. 



( Roux, a THotel-Dieu. 
\ Jarjavay,a I'hop.de laF. 

Clinique chirurgicale ) Velpeau, a la Charite. 

Laugier, a la Piti6. 



/ Fouquier, a la Charite. 
) Bouillaud, id. 



j Clinique medicale ) Chomel, a I'Hotel-Dieu. 

( Rostan, id. [laF. 

IClinique d'Accouchements | Dubois (Paul), a I'hop.de 



S (Midi 1?2. 
J i 3 heures. 



8 heures. 
lOheure; 



a Co heures 

'S]9h.ir2. 

S ( Midi . . 



KCOLE DE PHARMACIE. 



Manipulations 

Botanique. (Organog., Physiologie.). 



Falsifications des medicaments 

Hist. nat. des medicam. (Mineraux.) . 



Pharmacie 

Toxicologie 

Chimie organique. 



Botanique rurale. (Herborisations.) . 



Gaultier de Claubry. 
Chatin. 



Chevallier. 
CJuibourt. 



Lecanu. 

Caventou. 

Gaultier de Claubry. 



10 h. 1^2. 

Midi . . . 
Midi . . . 
1 heure.. 
1 h. l;-2.. 
1 h. 1/-2. . 
. 4 heures. 



'9 heures. 

10 h. 1/2. 

11 heures 
11 h. 1;2. 
Midi 1/-2. 
1 heure.. 
1 heure.. 
1 heure.. 
1 h. 1/2.. 

. 3 heures. 



COLLEGE DE FRANCE. 

Archeologie 

Eloquence latine 

Langue et litterature slave 

Histoire et morale 

Langues hebraiq., chalda'iq. et syriaque, 

Philosophic grecque et latine 

Langue et litt. chin, et tartare-mandchou. 



Droit de la nature et des gens 

Astronomic. 

Histoire des legislations comparees.. . . 

Poesie latine 

Chimie 

Langues et litter, de I'Europe meridion., 

Embryogenie comparee 

Hist, naturelle des corps inorganiques.. . 
Physique generale et mathematique... . 
Langues et litter, d'origine germanique. 



Lenormant. 

Nisart. 

Cyprien Robert. 

Michelet. 

iQuatremere. [ou Franck 

'Barthelemy St-Hilaire 

Stanislas Juiien. 



De Portets. 

Binet. 

Laboulaye. 

Tissot. 

Pelouze. 

E. Quinet ou Dumesnil- 

Coste. [Michelet. 

Elie de Beaumont. 

Biot ou Bertrand. 

Philarete Chasles. 



8 h. Ir2.. 

9 h. 1/2. . 

10 h. 1/2. 
Midi . . . 
Midi . . . 
Midi 1/2. 
Midi 1/2. 
Midi 1/2. 
1 h. 1/2-. 
1 h. 1/2.. 
3 h. 1/2.. 



Langue arabe. . 

Langue et litterature sanskrite 

Langue persane 

Medecine 

Economie politique 

Langue turque 

Physique generale et experimentale. ... 

Langue et litterature grecque 

Langues hebraiq., chalda'iq. et syriaque. 
Histoire naturelle des corps organises.. . 
Litterature francaise 



Caussin de Perceval. 

E. Burnouf. 

Jules Mohl. 

Magendie ou Bernard. 

Michel Chevalier. 

Alix Desgranges. 

Regnauld. 

Boissonade. 

Quatremere. 

Duvernoy. 

J.J. Ampere. 



8 heures, 
10 h. 1/2. 
Midi 1/2. 
1 heure.. 
4 heures. 



Mathematiques 

Archeologie 

Langue persane 

Histoire et morale 

Langue et litt. chin, et tartare-mandchou 



Hermite. 
Lenormant. 
Jules Mohl. 
Michelet. 
Stanislas Juiien. 



118 



APPENDIX. 



9 h. Ifi.. 

8 heures 

9 h. 1?2. , 
11 heures 
Midi.... 
Midi .... 
Midi 1?2. 
Midi l22. 
Midi 1?2 
1 h. l22. . 

1 h. ifi.. 

2 heures 



' 8 heures 
9 heures 

9 lieures 

10 h. If2, 

10 h. 122, 

11 h. l22, 
Midi .... 
Midi l^a. 
1 heure.. 
1 heure.. 

l^3h. 122.. 



SECOND SEMESTRE 1850. 



Langue arabe 

Laiigues et litter, de I'Europe m^ridion. . 

Langue et litterature sanslvrite. 

Histoire des legislations comparees 

Eloquence latine 

Medecine 

Langue turque 

Physique generale et experimentale... • 

Langue et litterature grecque ••• 

Philosophie grecque et latine 

Histoire naturelle des corps organises.. 
Physique generale et mathematique 



iviatuemauques 

Droit de la nature et des gens. ■ 

Langue et litterature slave 

Langues et litter, d'origine germanique. 

Astronomie 

Poesie latine 

Economic politique 

Chimie 

Embryogenie comparee 

Hist naturelle des corps inorganiques.. 
Litterature francaise. 



PROFESSEURS. 



Caussin de Perceval. 

E. Quinet ou Dumesnil- 

E. B'urnouf. [Michelet. 

Laboulaye. 

Nisart. 

Magendie ou Bernard. 

Alix Desgranges. 

Regnault. 

Boissonade. 

Barthelemy St-Hilaire 

Duvernoy. [ou Franck, 

Biot ou Bertrand. 



Herraite. 

De Portets. 

Cj-prien Robert. 

Philarete Chasles. 

Binet. 

Tissot. 

Michel Chevalier. 

Pelouze. 

Coste. 

Elie de Beaumont, 

J.-J. Ampere. 



BIBLIOTHEQUE NATIONALE (rue Neuve-des-Petits-Champs, 12). 



f^ ^9h.l?2.. 










S J2h. 122.. 
^j ( 4 heures. 






Cours d'armenien 


Le Vaillant de Florival 


!> \7 h du s 




Quatremere. 


KJ '- 




w (9h. 324.. 
^, ^2h. 122.. 
g ( 4 heures. 




Garcin de Tassy. 




Cours de turc 


Louis Dubeux. 


^ 1 11 heures 


Cours de grec et de paleographie grecque 


Hase. 



MUSEUM D'HISTOIRE NATURELLE (Jardin des Plantes). 



g 


( 10 heures 


J 


\ Midi .... 


t/j 


r 10 h. 124. 




) 1 heure.. 




1 3 heures. 


s 


( 



10 heures 



Mineralogie [Dufrenoy. 

Botanique et Physique vegetale I Ad. Brongniart. 



Chimie appliquee 

Physiologic comparee 

Hist. nat. des Crustaces, des Arachnides 
et des Insectes 



Culture. 



Botanique dans la campagne. 



Chevreul. 
Flourens. 



Milne Edwards. 



Decaisne. 



APPENDIX. 119 

The University of Paris is the ancient University, found- 
ed by William of Chanipeaux, in 1109. The Sorbonne 
is the title given to one of the Colleges founded by Robert 
de Sorbonne, an ecclesiastic of the thirteenth century. It 
M'as strictly a school of Theology ; and, although only one 
of the four constituent parts of the Faculty of Theology in 
the University of Paris, it attained such eminence that it 
frequently gave its name to the whole faculty ; and even 
graduates of the University, not belonging to this College, 
were wont to style themselves doctors, or bachelors of the 
Sorbonne. The Sorbonne, on account of its reputation, 
was appealed to to decide questions in Theology and 
Morals. 

The buildings of the College are now occupied by the 
three faculties of Theology, Science, and Literature of the 
Academie Universitaire of Paris. 

The College Royal de France was instituted by Francis 
I., in 1530. He created twelve chairs for instruction in 
Greek, Hebrew, Eloquence, Philosophy, and Medicine. 
Since then various additions have been made, until now the 
number of chairs amounts to twenty-four. The courses 
are gratuitous. The Oriental Languages hold a very con- 
spicuous place. 

The University of France is the work of Napoleon. 
" Ce grand esprit reconnut tout d'abord que I'education 
publique devait etre la base de I'ordre nouveau. NuUe 
matiere ne I'occupa davantage. II consulta les hommes 
les plus differentes ; il eut sous les yeux les projets les 
plus divers. II repetait sans cesse cette phrase celebre de 
Leibnitz : Donnez-moi I'instruction publique pendant un 
Siecle, et je changerai le monde."* 

* Cousin. 



120 APPENDIX. 

He instituted a great system of national education com- 
prising three degrees, Vinstruction primaire, Vinstruction 
secondaire, Vinstruction superieure. The University com- 
prehends the last two. To the instruction secondaire belong 
the Colleges. Of these about three hundred and twenty 
are Colleges comm^ma^ia; scattered through the large towns. 
They are supported by the towns, the heads and professors 
being paid out of the revenues of the Communes. Forty 
of them are royal Colleges, les lycees ou Colleges royaux. 
The directors and professors in these are paid by the 
State. The College royal de France is one of these. 

To the instruction superieur belong the faculties of the 
University proper : the faculties of Theology, Law, Med- 
icine, Science, and Letters. 

The Institute National de France is a society of 
learned men, instituted not for the purpose of giving in- 
struction, but for the purpose of advancing science and 
the arts by original and uninterrupted researches, by the 
publication of discoveries, and by correspondence with 
learned societies, and learned men in other countries. It 
consists of resident members, and corresponding members 
native and foreign, and associate foreign members. Of 
the first there are nearly two hundred, of the last two, 
more than two hundred. The resident members and the 
five perpetual secretaries receive salaries.* 

The Institute is distributed into five Academies — The 
Academy of the French language and literature. The 
Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres, The Academy 
of the Fine Arts, The Academy of Sciences, and The 
Academy of Moral and Political Sciences. 

* The resident members receive each 1500 francs, the secretaries 
6000 francs, per annum. 



/}r, 



/'!''■'■ 



